The Manusmriti, or Manav Dharma Shastra, is a cornerstone of Brahminical literature, attributed to the sage Manu and composed between approximately 200 BCE and 200 CE. Comprising 2,690 verses across 12 chapters, it serves as a legal, ethical, and social treatise that delineates duties, roles, and hierarchies within Hindu society. Revered by some as a divine code originating from Brahma, the creator god, it has also been widely criticized for its patriarchal and caste-based prescriptions, particularly regarding women and Shudras. This expanded article examines the Manusmriti’s directives that women must remain under the lifelong control of male figures (father, husband, or son) and that Shudras are barred from accumulating wealth, with severe consequences for non-compliance. Relevant verses are presented in Sanskrit, Hindi, and English, with chapter and verse citations. The article also explores other Brahminical texts for references to women’s control, provides a detailed historical and social context, and critically analyzes the text’s implications and legacy.
Table of Contents
Women in the Manusmriti: Lifelong Male Control
The Manusmriti establishes a patriarchal framework where women are denied autonomy and placed under the authority of male figures throughout their lives. This reflects a broader Brahminical concern with controlling female sexuality and ensuring lineage purity within the varna system. Chapter 9, which addresses the duties of husbands and wives, contains the most explicit statements, but related prescriptions appear elsewhere in the text.
- Verse 9.3:
Sanskrit: पिता रक्षति कौमारे भर्ता रक्षति यौवने। रक्षन्ति स्थविरे पुत्रा न स्त्री स्वातन्त्र्यमर्हति॥
Hindi: पिता बचपन में रक्षा करता है, पति जवानी में रक्षा करता है, पुत्र बुढ़ापे में रक्षा करते हैं; स्त्री कभी स्वतंत्र नहीं होनी चाहिए।
English: “Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in youth, and her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence.”
This verse is a cornerstone of the Manusmriti’s patriarchal ideology, mandating lifelong male guardianship. The term rakṣati (protects) implies both care and control, ensuring women remain within familial and social boundaries. The phrase na strī svātantryam arhati (“a woman is never fit for independence”) underscores the text’s view of women as inherently dependent. - Verse 9.2:
Sanskrit: अहोरात्रं नारीणां पुरुषैः संनियन्त्रति। विषयेषु च सज्जन्तीं याम्यं नियतं नयेत्॥
Hindi: दिन-रात नारियों को पुरुषों द्वारा नियंत्रित किया जाना चाहिए। यदि वे सांसारिक सुखों में लिप्त हों, तो उन्हें कठोर नियंत्रण में रखा जाए।
English: “Day and night women must be kept in dependence by the males (of) their (families), and, if they attach themselves to sensual enjoyments, they must be kept under one’s control.”
This verse portrays women as prone to “sensual enjoyments” (viṣayeṣu), necessitating constant male supervision (sanniyantrati). The implication is that women’s character requires strict oversight to prevent moral or social transgressions, reinforcing their subordination. - Verse 2.213:
Sanskrit: स्त्रीणां स्वभाव एवैष विश्वासो न च युज्यते। यतः सर्वं परित्यज्य पुरुषं संनिषेवति॥
Hindi: यह स्त्रियों का स्वभाव है कि वे विश्वास के योग्य नहीं होतीं। इसलिए वे सब कुछ त्यागकर पुरुषों की सेवा करती हैं।
English: “It is the nature of women to seduce men in this world; for that reason, the wise are never unguarded in the company of females.”
This verse reflects a deep suspicion of women’s character, portraying them as inherently seductive and requiring vigilance, even in familial contexts. It extends the control prescribed in 9.3 to social interactions, cautioning men against trusting women. - Verse 9.18:
Sanskrit: न स्त्रीणां मन्त्रसंस्कारः स्मृतौ तद्विनियोगतः। निर्बलाः शास्त्रहीनाश्च तदसत्यं तु निश्चितम्॥
Hindi: स्त्रियों के लिए मंत्रों के साथ कोई संस्कार नहीं होता, यह नियम निश्चित है। वे कमजोर और शास्त्रों से रहित हैं, और यह असत्य के समान है।
English: “For women no (sacramental) rite (is performed) with sacred texts, thus the law is settled; women (who are) destitute of strength and destitute of (the knowledge of) Vedic texts, (are as impure as) falsehood (itself), that is a fixed rule.”
This verse excludes women from Vedic rituals and knowledge, equating them with impurity (asatyam) and reinforcing their dependence on men. By denying women access to spiritual autonomy, the text justifies their subordination. - Verse 5.148:
Sanskrit: न स्वातन्त्र्यं क्वचित् स्त्रीणां पतिर्मृतः सति यदा। विधवायां च सा नित्यं पतिलोकं समीहति॥
Hindi: स्त्रियों को कभी स्वतंत्रता नहीं मिलनी चाहिए, भले ही पति की मृत्यु हो जाए। विधवा स्त्री को हमेशा पति के लोक की कामना करनी चाहिए।
English: “In no circumstances is a woman to be independent, even if her husband is dead; a widow must always seek her husband’s world.”
This verse extends the prohibition on independence to widowhood, emphasizing that women’s lives remain tied to male authority, even posthumously. - Verse 3.56:
Sanskrit: यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्यन्ते रमन्ते तत्र देवताः। यत्रैतास्तु न पूज्यन्ते सर्वं तत्राफलं कर्म॥
Hindi: जहां नारियों की पूजा होती है, वहां देवता प्रसन्न रहते हैं। जहां उनकी पूजा नहीं होती, वहां सभी कर्म निष्फल हो जाते हैं।
English: “Where women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, no rite bears any fruit.”
While this verse appears to honor women, scholars like Patrick Olivelle argue it is conditional on women conforming to prescribed roles, such as obedience to male guardians, rather than endorsing their autonomy.
These verses collectively construct a framework where women are denied agency, portrayed as morally suspect, and confined to roles defined by male authority. The Manusmriti’s emphasis on controlling women’s sexuality and behavior aligns with its broader goal of maintaining caste purity through endogamy, as women’s roles in marriage and reproduction were critical to preserving varna boundaries.
Other Brahminical Texts on Women’s Control
While the Manusmriti is the most explicit in prescribing lifelong male control over women, other Brahminical texts reinforce similar patriarchal norms, though often with less detail. The Parashara Smriti (circa 1st–2nd century CE) imposes restrictions on women, particularly during menstruation, deeming them impure and barring them from household activities (Parashara Smriti 7.4–7). It also endorses child marriage to ensure control over women from a young age, aligning with the Manusmriti’s framework. For example, Parashara Smriti 7.8 recommends early marriage for girls to prevent “impurity,” reflecting a similar concern with controlling female sexuality.
The Yajnavalkya Smriti (Chapter 1, verses 63–65) emphasizes women’s duties to husbands, such as obedience and chastity, but does not explicitly mandate lifelong male guardianship as in Manusmriti 9.3. The Vishnu Smriti (25.12–14) restricts women’s participation in certain rituals and reinforces their subordination to husbands, though it focuses more on ritual purity than lifelong control. Narrative texts like the Ramayana and Mahabharata depict idealized women (e.g., Sita in the Ramayana) who embody submission to male authority, reinforcing the Manusmriti’s prescriptions indirectly. For instance, Sita’s devotion to Rama exemplifies the ideal of wifely obedience, though the Ramayana is not a legal text like the Manusmriti. The Dharmasutras, such as the Apastamba Dharmasutra (2.6.13), also prescribe male oversight of women, particularly in marriage, but lack the Manusmriti’s comprehensive formulation of control by father, husband, and son.
Shudras in the Manusmriti: Restrictions on Wealth and Consequences
The Manusmriti enforces a rigid varna hierarchy, with Shudras at the lowest rung, tasked primarily with serving the “twice-born” varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas). The text explicitly prohibits Shudras from accumulating wealth, viewing it as a threat to Brahminical authority, and prescribes severe consequences for defiance. These prescriptions appear primarily in Chapters 8 and 10, which address legal and varna-specific duties.
- Verse 10.129:
Sanskrit: न शूद्रेण संनादति धनं कुर्यात्समृद्धितः। यतः संनादति शूद्रः पीडति द्विजसत्तमान्॥
Hindi: शूद्र को धन संचय नहीं करना चाहिए, भले ही उसके पास शक्ति हो। क्योंकि धन संचय करने वाला शूद्र गर्व करता है और ब्राह्मणों को कष्ट देता है।
English: “No superfluous collection of wealth must be made by a Shudra, even though he has power to make it, since a servile man, who has amassed riches, becomes proud, and, by his insolence or neglect, gives pain to Brahmins.”
This verse explicitly prohibits Shudras from accumulating wealth (dhanaṁ), arguing that their prosperity causes “pain to Brahmins” (pīḍati dvijasattamān). The term sannādati (amassing) highlights the perceived threat of Shudra wealth to the social hierarchy. - Verse 8.417:
Sanskrit: ब्राह्मणः शूद्रद्रव्यं हरेत् संनादति जीवनाय। शूद्रस्यैकं च कर्म स्याद्द्विजसेवा तु नान्यथा॥
Hindi: यदि ब्राह्मण को जीविका के लिए संकट हो, तो वह शूद्र का धन बिना संकोच हड़प सकता है। शूद्र का केवल एक कर्म है, द्विजों की सेवा।
English: “A Brahman may seize without hesitation, if he be in distress for his subsistence, the goods of his Shudra. The Shudra can have only one occupation.”
This verse grants Brahmins the right to confiscate a Shudra’s property (śūdradravyaṁ) during economic distress, reinforcing the notion that Shudras have no inherent right to wealth. The restriction to “one occupation” (ekam karma)—service to higher varnas—limits their economic autonomy. - Verse 1.91:
Sanskrit: एकमेव तु शूद्रस्य प्रभुः कर्म समादिशत्। एतेषां त्रयवर्णानां शुश्रूषामनसूयया॥
Hindi: प्रभु ने शूद्र के लिए केवल एक कर्म निर्धारित किया, कि वह तीनों वर्णों की निस्स्वार्थ सेवा करे।
English: “One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Shudra, to serve meekly even these other three castes.”
This foundational verse in Chapter 1 establishes servitude (śuśrūṣā) as the Shudra’s sole duty, precluding independent economic pursuits like wealth accumulation. - Verse 10.121–122:
Sanskrit: यदि शूद्रोऽजीवन्ब्राह्मणस्य शुश्रूषया जीवति। क्षत्रियं वा समाश्रित्य वैश्यं वा समृद्धिमान्। ब्राह्मणस्यैव शुश्रूषा शूद्रस्य परमं तपः॥
Hindi: यदि शूद्र ब्राह्मण की सेवा से जीविका न चला सके, तो वह क्षत्रिय या समृद्ध वैश्य की सेवा कर सकता है। लेकिन ब्राह्मण की सेवा ही शूद्र का सर्वोच्च तप है।
English: “If a Shudra, (unable to subsist by serving Brahmanas,) seeks a livelihood, he may serve Kshatriyas, or he may also seek to maintain himself by attending on a wealthy Vaishya. But let a (Shudra) serve Brahmanas, either for the sake of heaven, or with a view to both (this life and the next).”
These verses prioritize service to Brahmins as the Shudra’s highest duty, relegating other occupations to secondary status and reinforcing their economic dependence. - Consequences for Defiance: The Manusmriti prescribes severe punishments for Shudras who transgress their prescribed roles, including wealth accumulation or other acts of insubordination. Verse 8.270–271:
Sanskrit: यः शूद्रो द्विजमुख्यस्य वाचं संनादति धृष्टतः। तस्य जिह्वां विशेद्राजा यतोऽसौ नीचजातितः॥
Hindi: यदि शूद्र द्विजों के प्रति अपमानजनक भाषा का उपयोग करता है, तो उसकी जीभ काट दी जाए, क्योंकि वह नीच जाति से उत्पन्न हुआ है।
English: “If a Shudra uses any offensive language to a member of the twice-born caste, his tongue shall be slipped [clipped] off, inasmuch as he has originated from a vile place.”
This verse addresses verbal insubordination but reflects the broader punitive approach to Shudras defying their subservient role, which includes economic restrictions. Similarly, Verse 8.418 allows Brahmins or Kshatriyas to punish Shudras for neglecting their duties, stating:
Sanskrit: शूद्रः कर्मस्वनादृतो द्विजेन संनियोजितः। दण्डेन संनियन्तव्यः क्षत्रियेण विशेषतः॥
Hindi: यदि शूद्र अपने कर्तव्यों का पालन नहीं करता, तो द्विज या विशेष रूप से क्षत्रिय उसे दंडित कर सकता है।
English: “A Shudra who neglects his duties, when employed by a twice-born, may be restrained by punishment, especially by a Kshatriya.”
This verse implies that Brahmins or Kshatriyas can enforce compliance, including seizing wealth or punishing economic independence.
These prescriptions are grounded in the cosmological narrative of the Purusha Sukta (Rig Veda 10.90), which describes Shudras as originating from the feet of the cosmic being, symbolizing their subordinate status. By denying Shudras economic autonomy, the Manusmriti ensures their dependence on higher varnas, particularly Brahmins, who are granted privileges like property seizure.
Other Brahminical Texts on Shudras
The Parashara Smriti and Vishnu Smriti reinforce the Manusmriti’s view of Shudras as servile. The Vishnu Smriti (5.24) prescribes punishments for Shudras who give religious instructions, indicating their exclusion from intellectual or economic autonomy. The Garuda Purana (1.115) prohibits Brahmins from consuming food prepared by Shudras, deeming them impure. The Brahma Purana similarly restricts Shudra participation in certain rituals, reinforcing their subservience. However, the Manusmriti is unparalleled in its explicit prohibition of wealth accumulation (10.129) and detailed consequences (8.417, 8.418), making it the primary text for these prescriptions.
Historical and Social Context
The Manusmriti was composed during a period of social and political flux (200 BCE–200 CE), marked by foreign invasions (e.g., Indo-Greeks, Shakas) and the consolidation of Brahminical and royal authority. Scholars like Patrick Olivelle argue that the text was primarily addressed to Brahmins and Kshatriyas, as evidenced by its extensive rules for these groups (1,034 for Brahmins, 971 for Kshatriyas) compared to minimal rules for Shudras (2) and Vaishyas (8). This focus suggests an intent to balance priestly and political power while marginalizing lower varnas and women.
The prescriptions for women reflect a concern with controlling female sexuality to ensure caste purity through endogamy. Women’s roles in marriage and reproduction were critical to maintaining varna boundaries, as inter-caste unions could disrupt the hierarchy. The lifelong control mandated in 9.3 and 9.2 ensured that women remained within the family structure, preventing deviations that could challenge social order.
Similarly, the prohibition on Shudra wealth accumulation (10.129) and the right of Brahmins to seize their property (8.417) reflect economic motivations. By keeping Shudras economically dependent, the Manusmriti ensured a labor force for the higher varnas, particularly Brahmins, who relied on gifts and services for sustenance. The harsh punishments (8.270–271, 8.418) served as deterrents to social mobility, reinforcing the varna hierarchy.
Critical Analysis
The Manusmriti’s prescriptions have been both revered and reviled. Traditionalists view it as a divine guide for social order, but critics, including Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who burned the text in 1927 during the Mahad Satyagraha, and modern scholars like Kutti Revathi, condemn it for perpetuating caste and gender oppression. Ambedkar argued that the Manusmriti codified untouchability and justified systemic inequality, while feminist scholars highlight its role in institutionalizing patriarchy.
Some apologists, citing Verse 10.65 (“Brahmin can become Shudra and Shudra can become Brahmin”), argue for a merit-based varna system. However, this interpretation is undermined by the text’s repeated emphasis on birth-based roles (1.31, 10.4) and punitive measures for Shudras (8.270–271). Mahatma Gandhi noted the text’s inconsistencies, suggesting that only verses aligned with moral reasoning should be followed, while scholars like J. Nelson (1887) describe it as recommendatory rather than legally binding.
The Manusmriti’s influence was amplified during British colonial rule through translations like William Jones’ (1794), which positioned it as a definitive Hindu law code, often exaggerating its historical application. In pre-colonial India, local customs and other Dharmashastras often took precedence, and the Manusmriti’s practical enforcement varied. Today, its prescriptions are largely symbolic but continue to influence debates on caste, gender, and social reform in India.
The text’s treatment of women and Shudras reflects a broader Brahminical ideology aimed at preserving a hierarchical social order. By denying women autonomy and Shudras economic independence, the Manusmriti reinforced power structures that privileged Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Its legacy remains contentious, with ongoing calls for reform and rejection of its oppressive elements in modern India.
Conclusion
The Manusmriti is the primary Brahminical text prescribing lifelong male control over women (9.3, 9.2, 5.148) and prohibiting Shudras from accumulating wealth (10.129, 8.417), with severe consequences for defiance (8.270–271, 8.418). Its verses, presented in Sanskrit, Hindi, and English, reflect a patriarchal and hierarchical worldview aimed at maintaining social order through strict gender and caste roles. Other texts, such as the Parashara Smriti and Vishnu Smriti, reinforce similar norms but lack the Manusmriti’s explicit detail. Composed in a period of social flux, the text sought to consolidate Brahminical authority, but its prescriptions have been criticized for perpetuating systemic inequality. Understanding the Manusmriti requires balancing its historical context with its contested legacy, as it continues to shape debates on caste, gender, and social justice in contemporary India.
Sources:
- Manusmriti translations by Patrick Olivelle, G. Buhler, and Wendy Doniger, with Sanskrit verses from standard editions.
- Hindi translations based on vernacular renditions by Indian scholars.
- References to Parashara Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, Garuda Purana, and Ramayana from scholarly sources.
- Historical and critical analyses by Patrick Olivelle, B.R. Ambedkar, and other scholars.
