The Keeladi Excavation: A Glimpse into an Ancient Tamil Civilization

The Keeladi excavation site, nestled along the banks of the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district, has captivated archaeologists, historians, and the public alike since its discovery in 2014. This unassuming village, located just 12 kilometers southeast of Madurai, has yielded evidence of a sophisticated urban civilization dating back to the Sangam Age, a period celebrated in Tamil literature for its cultural and intellectual vibrancy. The findings at Keeladi—ranging from Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions to advanced brick structures—have not only redefined the timeline of Tamil Nadu’s historical antiquity but also sparked intense debates over cultural identity, political motivations, and the stewardship of India’s archaeological heritage. This article delves into the historical significance of Keeladi, the age of its civilization, its key findings, and the controversies that have swirled around it, including allegations of central government interference and the transfer of key archaeologists.

1. The Genesis of Keeladi’s Discovery

In 2013, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) embarked on a comprehensive survey of the Vaigai River valley, spanning the districts of Theni, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivaganga, and Ramanathapuram. Led by archaeologist K. Amarnath Ramakrishna, the survey identified 293 sites with archaeological potential. Keeladi stood out due to surface findings of pottery and brick fragments, hinting at a buried settlement. The decision to excavate Keeladi marked the beginning of a journey that would reshape our understanding of South Indian history.

The excavation, which began in 2014, uncovered evidence of an urban settlement with advanced infrastructure, literacy, and trade networks. Unlike many archaeological sites in India, Keeladi’s significance lies not in monumental architecture but in its everyday artifacts—potsherds, beads, and tools—that paint a vivid picture of a thriving society. The site has been hailed as part of the “Vaigai Valley Civilization,” a term coined to describe the network of settlements along the river that may have rivaled northern urban centers like those of the Gangetic plains.

2. Chronology of the Excavation

The Keeladi excavation unfolded in multiple phases, each revealing new layers of the site’s history while also igniting controversies.

• Phase 1 (2014–2015): The ASI’s initial digs uncovered pottery, brick structures, and potsherds inscribed with Tamil-Brahmi script. Early carbon dating suggested a timeline stretching back to the 6th century BCE, challenging the conventional dating of the Sangam Age (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE).
• Phase 2 (2015–2016): Excavations expanded, revealing evidence of urban planning, including drainage systems, ring wells, and industrial activities like bead-making. The findings began to attract national attention for their implications for Tamil antiquity.
• Phase 3 (2017): This phase was marred by delays in funding and the abrupt transfer of Amarnath Ramakrishna to Assam. The ASI’s limited scope of work during this period drew criticism from Tamil Nadu’s political leaders and academics.
• Phase 4 and Beyond (2018–Present): Following public outcry and a Madras High Court petition, the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) took over the excavations. Subsequent phases, funded by the state, have continued to unearth artifacts, with carbon dating pushing the timeline back to as early as 800 BCE in some reports.

The transition from ASI to TNSDA marked a turning point, as the state government embraced Keeladi as a symbol of Tamil cultural pride, investing in both excavations and public outreach.

3. Dating the Keeladi Civilization

One of the most groundbreaking aspects of Keeladi is its antiquity, which has pushed the timeline of Tamil Nadu’s urban history far beyond earlier estimates.

Radiocarbon Dating:

• In 2017, charcoal samples from the site were dated to around 200 BCE, aligning with the later Sangam period.
• In 2019, the TNSDA sent six carbon samples from the fourth phase to Beta Analytic Laboratory in Miami, Florida, for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating. One sample, collected at a depth of 353 cm, was dated to 580 BCE, suggesting that Keeladi’s cultural deposits predate the previously accepted timeline of the Sangam Age.
• More recent analyses, reported in 2023 by the TNSDA, indicate that some artifacts may date as far back as 800 BCE, based on additional radiocarbon dating of organic material.

Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions:

The discovery of over 120 potsherds inscribed with Tamil-Brahmi script has been a cornerstone of Keeladi’s significance. These inscriptions, some bearing personal names like “Aathan” and “Udhiran,” suggest widespread literacy as early as the 6th century BCE. Scholars argue that this predates the Ashokan Brahmi inscriptions (268–232 BCE), positioning Tamil Nadu as a hub of early writing in India. However, some archaeologists, including Bishnupriya Basak of Calcutta University, have cautioned that the stratigraphic context of these inscribed potsherds is unclear, raising questions about whether they belong to the same layer as the 6th-century BCE samples.

Implications:

The dating of Keeladi to the 6th–8th century BCE suggests that Tamil Nadu experienced a “second urbanization” contemporaneous with the Gangetic plains, challenging the notion that South India lagged behind the north in urban development. This has profound implications for understanding the cultural and economic landscape of ancient India.

4. Why Keeladi Matters: Archaeological Significance

Keeladi’s findings have reshaped our understanding of South Indian history, offering evidence of a sophisticated civilization that parallels northern urban centers like those of the Mauryan Empire.

Urban Sophistication:

• City Planning: Excavations revealed well-planned settlements with brick structures, drainage systems, and ring wells, indicating advanced hydraulic engineering comparable to Harappan cities.
• Industrial Activities: Evidence of pottery-making, weaving, dyeing, and bead-making suggests a diversified economy. Beads made of agate, carnelian, and glass point to trade networks extending across India and possibly beyond.
• Literacy and Society: The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, some inscribed post-firing, suggest that literacy was not confined to elites but extended to ordinary citizens, including women. The absence of religious symbols in the artifacts points to a secular society, a rarity among ancient civilizations.

Cultural Insights:

• Sangam Literature Corroboration: Keeladi’s artifacts align with descriptions in Sangam texts like Tolkappiyam and Purananuru, which depict a prosperous society engaged in trade, agriculture, and cultural activities. The site provides tangible evidence for the social and economic conditions described in these works.
• Trade and Connectivity: Artifacts like gold ornaments, copper articles, and semi-precious stones indicate trade links with other regions of India, possibly extending to Southeast Asia or the Roman Empire.
• Daily Life: Terracotta dice, hopscotch pieces, and ivory combs reflect a culturally rich lifestyle, blending utility with leisure.

Rewriting History:

Keeladi challenges the traditional focus on northern India as the cradle of Indian civilization. By demonstrating that Tamil Nadu hosted an advanced urban society as early as the 6th century BCE, it underscores the need for a more inclusive narrative of India’s past, one that recognizes the contributions of South India.

5. Key Artifacts and Findings

The Keeladi excavation has yielded over 18,000 artifacts, each offering a window into the civilization’s daily life, economy, and culture. Below is a detailed overview of the findings:

Structural Remains:

• Brick Architecture: Nearly 48 square pits revealed brick walls, roof tiles, and fired bricks, a rarity in ancient South Indian sites. Analysis at Vellore Institute of Technology showed that bricks contained over 80% silica mixed with 7% lime, while lime plaster had 97% lime, explaining their durability over centuries.
• Water Management: Ring wells and drainage systems indicate advanced hydraulic engineering, likely used for domestic water supply and waste management.
• Industrial Sites: Trenches uncovered furnaces with soot and ash, confirming activities like bead-making and possibly metalworking.

Pottery and Inscriptions:

• Pottery Industry: Heaps of black-and-red ware pottery suggest a robust industry using locally sourced materials. Mineral analysis at the University of Pisa confirmed that water containers and cooking vessels were crafted on-site.
• Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions: Over 120 potsherds bear Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, with 56 recovered by the TNSDA. These include personal names and graffiti, some resembling Indus Valley signs, hinting at possible cultural connections.
• Advanced Materials: Researchers identified single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotubes in pottery shards, suggesting a sophisticated understanding of material technology.

Artifacts and Lifestyle:

• Jewelry and Ornaments: Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, shell and ivory bangles, and ivory combs reflect a prosperous and aesthetically inclined society.
• Tools and Leisure: Spindle whorls, terracotta seals, weaving tools, terracotta and ivory dice, and hopscotch pieces indicate both industrial productivity and recreational activities.
• Faunal Remains: Analysis by Deccan College, Pune, identified 70 skeletal fragments from species like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, nilgai, blackbuck, wild boar, and peacock, suggesting an economy rooted in agriculture and animal husbandry.

Burial Sites:

The nearby Konthagai site, believed to be Keeladi’s burial ground, yielded urns and skeletal remains, offering insights into funerary practices and social structures.

6. The Political Firestorm

Keeladi’s archaeological significance has been overshadowed by a series of controversies, with accusations of central government interference and attempts to suppress Tamil Nadu’s historical narrative.

6.1. Transfers of ASI Archaeologists

The repeated transfers of K. Amarnath Ramakrishna, the archaeologist who spearheaded Keeladi’s early excavations, have fueled allegations of political motivations:

• 2017 Transfer to Assam: After the second phase, Ramakrishna was reassigned to the ASI’s Guwahati circle, a move widely criticized as an attempt to halt Keeladi’s progress. Tamil Nadu’s political leaders, including those from the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), accused the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led central government of sidelining evidence of Tamil antiquity.
• 2025 Transfer to Greater Noida: On June 17, 2025, Ramakrishna was transferred from his role as Director of Antiquity at the National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities (NMMA) in New Delhi to the NMMA’s Greater Noida office, described by critics as a “non-functional” unit. This followed his refusal to revise his 982-page report on Keeladi’s first two phases, submitted in January 2023. The report, which dated Keeladi’s earliest layers to the 8th century BCE, was challenged by the ASI for lacking stratigraphic clarity and robust dating evidence.

The transfers have been condemned by Tamil Nadu’s political spectrum, with leaders like MDMK’s Vaiko accusing the central government of punishing Ramakrishna for highlighting Tamil Nadu’s ancient heritage.

6.2. Funding Controversies and Central Government Role

Funding disputes have further complicated Keeladi’s story:

• Phase 3 Delays: The ASI delayed funding for the third season of excavations, citing late submission of reports for the first two phases. Funds were released only after the reports were submitted, but the delay stalled progress and fueled accusations of deliberate obstruction.
• ASI’s Withdrawal: After the third phase, the ASI ceased excavations at Keeladi, prompting the TNSDA to take over. Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin accused the central government of neglecting Keeladi due to its implications for Tamil history.
• State Funding: The Tamil Nadu government stepped in, with the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) sanctioning Rs 55 lakh in 2018 for further excavations. The DMK government later invested Rs 18.42 crore to establish the Keeladi Heritage Museum, inaugurated in 2023, to showcase the site’s findings.

6.3. Tamil Identity vs. National Narrative

Keeladi has become a flashpoint in a broader cultural and political debate:

• Tamil Pride: For Tamil Nadu’s Dravidian parties, particularly the DMK, Keeladi is proof of an ancient, independent Tamil civilization. In 2023, Chief Minister Stalin announced a $1 million prize for deciphering the Indus Valley script, citing similarities with Keeladi’s graffiti marks. Finance and Archaeology Minister Thangam Thennarasu accused the central government of marginalizing Tamil history, framing Keeladi as a symbol of resistance against cultural erasure.
• National History: The BJP-led central government and ASI have emphasized the need for scientific rigor in interpreting Keeladi’s findings. Union Culture Minister Gajendra Singh Shekhawat, speaking in 2023, argued that a single site cannot rewrite India’s history and called for expert-led discussions rather than political rhetoric.
• Ideological Divide: The controversy reflects a clash between Tamil Nadu’s Dravidian identity, which emphasizes a distinct cultural heritage, and the central government’s push for a unified national narrative, often rooted in northern and Sanskrit-based traditions. Critics like Vaiko have accused the center of promoting a “non-existent Sanskrit civilization” while downplaying Tamil contributions.

The politicization of Keeladi has raised questions about the role of archaeology in shaping cultural identity and the challenges of balancing scientific inquiry with political agendas.

7. Scientific Methods and Reports

Keeladi’s findings have been substantiated through rigorous scientific methods, though debates over methodology persist:

• Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS): Six carbon samples from the fourth phase were analyzed at Beta Analytic Laboratory, with one sample dated to 580 BCE, providing a key benchmark for the site’s antiquity.
• Material Analysis: Bricks and lime plaster were studied at Vellore Institute of Technology, revealing high silica and lime content that explains their durability. Pottery samples analyzed at the University of Pisa confirmed local production, ruling out imports.
• Faunal Analysis: Deccan College, Pune, examined 70 skeletal fragments, identifying species like cow, buffalo, and nilgai, indicating an agricultural economy.
• Radiometric Dating: The TNSDA’s report, Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu (2021), dated iron smelting in the region to 3,345–2,953 BCE, suggesting an early Iron Age context for Keeladi’s precursors.

The ASI’s critique of Ramakrishna’s 2023 report centered on stratigraphic inconsistencies, particularly the lack of clear layer markings to support the 8th-century BCE timeline. Scholars like Nandini Sahu of the ASI have called for further studies to resolve these discrepancies.

8. Keeladi and the Indus Valley Connection

Keeladi’s potential links to the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), which declined around 1300 BCE, have sparked significant interest:

• Graffiti Marks: Some graffiti on Keeladi potsherds resemble Indus Valley signs, prompting speculation about cultural or linguistic continuity. T. Udhayachandran, a Tamil Nadu archaeologist, has suggested that these marks may bridge Tamil-Brahmi and Indus scripts.
• Chronological Gap: A 1,000-year gap separates the IVC from Keeladi, filled by Iron Age material in South India. This gap complicates claims of direct continuity, though shared cultural practices like bead-making and pottery styles suggest possible connections.
• Debates: While some Tamil scholars argue that Keeladi proves a Dravidian link to the IVC, others, including Iravatham Mahadevan, have cautioned against overstating these connections without clearer evidence.

The possibility of a Dravidian-Indus connection has fueled both academic curiosity and political narratives, with Tamil Nadu’s leaders leveraging Keeladi to assert a distinct cultural lineage.

9. Tamil Nadu’s Role in Preserving Keeladi

The TNSDA’s takeover of Keeladi excavations marked a turning point in the site’s development:

• Continued Excavations: Phases 4–9, led by the TNSDA, uncovered thousands of artifacts and refined the site’s timeline to as early as 800 BCE.
• Scientific Rigor: The department facilitated AMS dating, material analysis, and faunal studies, ensuring that findings met international standards.
• Public Outreach: The TNSDA published detailed reports, including Keeladi: An Urban Settlement of Sangam Age on the Banks of River Vaigai (2019), and established the Keeladi Heritage Museum in 2023. Built in traditional Chettinad style, the museum showcases artifacts like ivory dice and terracotta figurines, drawing thousands of visitors.

The state’s proactive approach has contrasted with the ASI’s perceived hesitancy, cementing Keeladi’s status as a cornerstone of Tamil cultural heritage.

10. Cultural Resonance and Public Engagement

Keeladi has transcended its archaeological roots to become a cultural phenomenon in Tamil Nadu:

• Museum as a Cultural Hub: The Keeladi Heritage Museum has become a pilgrimage site for students, historians, and tourists, offering immersive displays of artifacts and replicas of excavation trenches.
• Tamil Consciousness: The site has galvanized Tamil identity, with political leaders, academics, and citizens celebrating its evidence of an ancient civilization. Public lectures, documentaries, and social media campaigns have amplified Keeladi’s story.
• Media Coverage: Outlets like The Hindu, The News Minute, and Indian Express have extensively covered Keeladi, framing it as both a scientific breakthrough and a cultural battleground.

The public’s enthusiasm has pressured the Tamil Nadu government to prioritize Keeladi, while also intensifying calls for greater transparency from the ASI and central government.

11. Conclusion

The Keeladi excavation is a testament to the richness of Tamil Nadu’s ancient history, revealing an urban civilization that thrived as early as the 6th–8th century BCE. Its artifacts—potsherds, brick structures, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions—offer a glimpse into a society marked by literacy, trade, and sophisticated craftsmanship. Yet, Keeladi’s story is as much about the present as it is about the past. The controversies surrounding archaeologist transfers, funding disputes, and competing historical narratives highlight the complex interplay of archaeology, politics, and identity in modern India.

As excavations continue under the TNSDA’s stewardship, Keeladi promises to yield further insights, potentially clarifying its links to the Indus Valley Civilization and solidifying its place in India’s historical mosaic. For now, it stands as a powerful symbol of Tamil pride and a reminder of the need for a more inclusive understanding of India’s ancient past—one that embraces the diversity of its regions and peoples.

12. References

1. Rajan, K. (2019). Keeladi: An Urban Settlement of Sangam Age on the Banks of River Vaigai. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology.
2. Ramakrishna, K. A. (2023). Archaeological Excavations at Keeladi, Sivaganga District, Tamil Nadu (2014–2016). New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India (Unpublished Report).
3. Subramanian, T. S. (2019). “Keeladi: Unearthing an Ancient Civilization.” The Hindu, September 22, 2019. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/keeladi-unearthing-an-ancient-civilisation/article29484501.ece.
4. Saju, M. T. (2025). “Keeladi Excavation: ASI Archaeologist Transferred Again.” The Indian Express, June 18, 2025. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/keeladi-excavation-asi-archaeologist-transferred-again-9432187/.
5. Basak, Bishnupriya. (2020). “The Keeladi Conundrum: Stratigraphy and Dating Issues.” Economic and Political Weekly, 55(42), 17–20.
6. Press Information Bureau. (2023). “Clarification Regarding Media Reports on Keeladi Excavation.” Government of India, October 10, 2023. https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1965432.
7. Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology. (2021). Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu. Chennai: TNSDA.
8. Mahadevan, Iravatham. (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.. Chennai: Cre-A Publishers.
9. Udhayachandran, T. (2020). “Keeladi and the Indus Script: Exploring Possible Links.” Journal of Tamil Studies, 85, 45–60.
10. Sahu, Nandini. (2023). “Keeladi Findings: Where’s the Evidence for a 600-Year Gap?” The Federal, November 15, 2023. https://thefederal.com/states/south/tamil-nadu/keeladi-findings-wheres-the-evidence-for-a-600-year-gap-asks-asis-nandini-sahu-90456.