Introduction: The Evolution of India’s Electoral Framework and the Role of the Election Commission
India’s democratic framework stands as a monumental achievement, often described as the world’s largest democracy, with over 970 million registered voters participating in elections that span vast geographical and cultural diversities. The Constitution of India provides the foundational pillars for this system through Part XV (Articles 324 to 329), which outlines the mechanisms for conducting free and fair elections. Article 324 is central to this structure, vesting the superintendence, direction, and control of elections—including the preparation and revision of electoral rolls—in the Election Commission of India (ECI), an autonomous constitutional body designed to shield the electoral process from undue political or executive influence. Complementing this, Article 326 enshrines the principle of adult suffrage, guaranteeing that every citizen aged 18 or above, barring those disqualified by law (such as for unsound mind or criminal convictions), has the right to vote without discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or residence. These provisions collectively aim to ensure electoral integrity, preventing arbitrary exclusions and fostering inclusivity, which are essential democratic safeguards.
Table of Contents
Historically, India’s electoral landscape was fraught with challenges. In the decades following independence, elections were plagued by malpractices such as booth capturing, bogus voting, unchecked money power, and muscle influence, often rendering the ECI a relatively passive entity subordinate to political whims. The turning point came in the 1990s with the tenures of Chief Election Commissioners (CECs) T.N. Seshan (1990-1996) and M.S. Gill (1996-2001), who revitalized the ECI’s role, transforming it into a proactive guardian of democracy. Seshan’s aggressive enforcement of electoral norms and Gill’s efforts to institutionalize these changes set precedents for transparency and fairness. In contrast, the recent terms of Rajiv Kumar (CEC from 2022-2025) and Gyanesh Kumar (CEC from 2025 onward) have emphasized technological innovations and voter roll purifications, yet they have been mired in controversies over transparency, alleged biases, and large-scale voter deletions.
The last two terms, particularly under Gyanesh Kumar, have spotlighted initiatives like the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls, intended to eliminate duplicates and inaccuracies but criticized for potentially disenfranchising millions, especially in states like Bihar and Karnataka. As of August 12, 2025, Supreme Court hearings on Bihar’s SIR—which omitted 65 lakh names from draft rolls—and allegations of voter fraud in Karnataka raised by Leader of Opposition (LOP) Rahul Gandhi, highlight ongoing tensions between electoral efficiency and constitutional safeguards. This article revisits and compares the contributions of Seshan and Gill with those of Kumar and Kumar, assessing their impacts on democratic safeguards through the lens of Articles 324 and 326. It evaluates who better protected voter rights and examines current issues like SIR and Karnataka’s anomalies, drawing on historical contexts and recent developments to provide a comprehensive analysis.
The ECI’s journey reflects India’s democratic maturation. From the first general elections in 1951-52 under Sukumar Sen, which managed 173 million voters with basic infrastructure, to today’s tech-driven processes, the commission has adapted to challenges like urbanization, digital misinformation, and demographic shifts. However, persistent issues—such as low urban turnout, influence of money in campaigns, and now, concerns over voter list manipulations—underscore the need for reforms that balance innovation with inclusivity. Judicial interventions, like the Supreme Court’s 1995 ruling in T.N. Seshan vs. Union of India, which established a multi-member ECI to prevent overreach, emphasize the judiciary’s oversight role in maintaining electoral autonomy. As India gears up for upcoming elections, including Bihar’s 2025 assembly polls, the ECI’s adherence to constitutional principles will be crucial in sustaining public trust.
T.N. Seshan’s Revolutionary Reforms: The Iron-Fisted Guardian of Electoral Integrity
Tirunellai Narayana Iyer Seshan, born on May 15, 1933, in Kerala, was a 1955-batch Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer whose appointment as the 10th CEC on December 12, 1990, heralded a new era in Indian elections. Prior to his tenure, which lasted until December 11, 1996, the ECI was often criticized for its ineffectiveness amid widespread electoral malpractices. Seshan, drawing on Article 324’s expansive powers, redefined the commission’s role, turning it from a bureaucratic appendage into a formidable institution that commanded respect and fear among politicians. His nickname “Al-Seshan” (a play on Al Capone) captured his uncompromising style, as he fearlessly confronted political heavyweights to enforce electoral discipline.
Seshan’s reforms were comprehensive and transformative. He revitalized the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), introduced in 1960 but largely dormant, by strictly prohibiting appeals to caste, religion, or communal sentiments, the use of government resources for campaigning, and excessive expenditures. Over 40,000 cases were filed against violations, and he deployed central paramilitary forces to curb booth capturing and violence, staggering elections in phases for better management. A pivotal initiative was the launch of Electoral Photo Identity Cards (EPIC) in 1993, which aimed to eliminate bogus voting by verifying voter identities, directly aligning with Article 324’s mandate for accurate electoral rolls. Campaign spending was capped—₹1.5 lakh for assembly seats and ₹4.5 lakh for parliamentary ones—with bans on wall defacements, loudspeakers after 10 PM, and ostentatious rallies, reducing the influence of money power.
His confrontational approach was evident in actions like postponing elections in states such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar when fairness couldn’t be assured, and challenging powerful leaders directly. This led to a significant decline in electoral violence and rigging, boosting voter confidence and turnout. The 1991 Lok Sabha elections, partially under his oversight, marked a shift toward cleaner polls. Constitutionally, Seshan interpreted Article 324 broadly as granting residuary powers to ensure fair elections, a stance that empowered the ECI but drew accusations of authoritarianism. The Supreme Court’s intervention in 1995, mandating a multi-member ECI, was a direct response to concerns over his singular dominance.
Seshan’s legacy is profound; he is often called the “father of electoral reforms” for restoring credibility to the system and inspiring international models of election management. By prioritizing clean rolls and fair processes, he upheld Article 326’s guarantee of universal suffrage, preventing disenfranchisement. Scholarly works highlight how his tenure addressed systemic biases, though debates on his style persist. Even today, the Supreme Court invokes “Seshan-like” leadership when critiquing the ECI’s perceived lapses.
M.S. Gill: Institutionalizing Reforms Through Diplomacy and Inclusivity
Manohar Singh Gill, a 1958-batch IAS officer from Punjab, succeeded Seshan as CEC from December 12, 1996, to June 13, 2001, bringing a more collaborative ethos to the ECI. With a background in rural development and administration, Gill criticized Seshan’s “one-man show” as unsustainable, advocating for a multi-member commission to ensure balanced decision-making and prevent over-centralization. His tenure focused on consolidating Seshan’s gains while introducing positive, inclusive reforms that emphasized voter education and technological integration.
Key among Gill’s contributions was the widespread adoption of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs), piloted earlier but scaled up under him to enhance efficiency, reduce paper usage, and minimize tampering risks. He launched voter awareness campaigns to combat urban apathy and boost participation among marginalized communities, aligning with Article 326’s inclusivity principles. Media regulations were introduced, including guidelines for exit polls and coverage to curb undue influence on voters. Gill also emphasized purification of electoral rolls through systematic verifications and multi-phase polling in sensitive regions, ensuring smoother operations during the 1998 and 1999 Lok Sabha elections.
Unlike Seshan’s confrontational style, Gill prioritized diplomacy, consulting political parties on reforms to build consensus and reduce antagonism. This approach led to fewer high-profile clashes but sustained MCC enforcement and institutional stability. His tenure saw a positive perception of elections as India’s “Kumbh Mela of democracy,” with increased focus on ethical campaigning. Criticisms included perceptions of being less assertive, potentially diluting the ECI’s newfound authority, but Gill defended his method as essential for long-term viability.
Gill’s legacy lies in modernizing the ECI while fostering inclusivity, making it a “place of positive reforms.” By emphasizing voter education and accurate rolls, he reinforced democratic safeguards, complementing Seshan’s foundational work.
Comparative Analysis: Seshan vs. Gill on Reforms and Democratic Safeguards
To appreciate their contributions, a structured comparison is essential:
| Aspect | T.N. Seshan | M.S. Gill |
|---|---|---|
| Style and Approach | Confrontational and assertive; invoked Article 324 aggressively to challenge malpractices and political interference. | Diplomatic and consensus-oriented; supported multi-member ECI for balanced governance. |
| Key Reforms | MCC enforcement, EPIC introduction, expense caps, paramilitary deployment to curb violence. | EVM expansion, voter education, media guidelines, roll purification drives. |
| Impact on Safeguards | Reduced rigging and boosted trust; strong protection of Article 326 through clean processes. | Enhanced inclusivity and sustainability; focused on long-term voter participation. |
| Criticisms | Accused of overreach, leading to judicial curbs. | Seen as less bold, risking dilution of authority. |
| Legacy | Revolutionary; benchmark for ECI autonomy. | Consolidative; ensured enduring fairness. |
Together, Seshan and Gill elevated the ECI, with Seshan initiating bold changes and Gill ensuring their institutionalization.
Rajiv Kumar’s Tenure: Achievements, Innovations, and Criticisms
Rajiv Kumar, a 1984-batch IAS officer, served as the 25th CEC from May 15, 2022, to February 18, 2025, overseeing 31 assembly elections and the monumental 2024 Lok Sabha polls involving 642 million voters. His achievements included digital portals for real-time transparency, proposals for remote voting for migrants, and conducting violence-free elections in Jammu & Kashmir post-Article 370 abrogation. Kumar addressed urban voter apathy and cautioned against “fake narratives” eroding trust in EVMs, emphasizing the ECI as democracy’s “place of worship.”
However, criticisms were rife. Opposition parties accused the ECI of bias, citing delays in poll data release, inaction on EVM concerns, and perceived proximity to the executive. Kumar’s farewell highlighted trends of blaming the ECI post-losses, but analysts noted missed opportunities for deeper reforms.
Gyanesh Kumar: Current Challenges and the SIR Initiative
Gyanesh Kumar, appointed Election Commissioner in March 2024 and CEC in February 2025, has focused on voter roll accuracy through SIR. Involved in J&K polls, he defends SIR as a constitutional duty under Article 324 to remove duplicates and deceased names. Amid Bihar’s 65 lakh omissions, he refutes suppression claims, stressing appeals processes. Criticisms include allegations of bias and “trust deficits,” as noted in Supreme Court hearings.
Who Excelled in Democratic Safeguards? A Comparative Evaluation
Seshan and Gill’s collective impact on safeguards surpasses recent terms. Seshan’s enforcement and Gill’s inclusivity robustly protected Articles 324 and 326. Kumar’s innovations were notable but marred by transparency issues; Gyanesh’s SIR risks disenfranchisement.
| Aspect | Seshan & Gill | Kumar & Kumar |
|---|---|---|
| Safeguards | Exemplary enforcement and inclusivity. | Tech-driven but controversial. |
| Constitutional Alignment | Strong adherence to Articles 324/326. | Scrutiny over impartiality. |
Contemporary Challenges: SIR in Bihar and Karnataka Voter Anomalies
SIR in Bihar, launched July 2025, omitted 65 lakh names, potentially rising to 1 crore, drawing accusations of voter suppression. The ECI assures no deletions without notice, but SC highlights “trust deficits.” In Karnataka’s Mahadevapura, Gandhi alleges 1 lakh fake additions with anomalies like multiple/zero addresses and Form-6 misuse for elderly voters. ECI demands proof, amid protests. These issues threaten Article 326, echoing the need for Seshan-era vigilance.
Conclusion: Lessons for Sustaining Electoral Integrity
Seshan and Gill better safeguarded democracy by establishing autonomy and fairness. Current challenges demand renewed commitment to transparency to uphold constitutional ideals.
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