Karl Marx’s Influence on Bhagat Singh, an iconic figure in India’s struggle for independence, is celebrated for his audacious acts of resistance against British colonial rule, including the bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1929 and his martyrdom at the age of 23 in 1931. While his legacy as a revolutionary hero endures, Singh’s intellectual journey reveals a deep engagement with the ideas of Karl Marx, whose critique of capitalism and vision of a classless society transformed Singh from a fervent nationalist into a committed socialist revolutionary. This article explores how and why Bhagat Singh was inspired by Marx, examining the historical context, Singh’s access to Marxist literature, the resonance of Marx’s ideas with India’s colonial realities, and the lasting impact of this ideological alignment. By delving into Singh’s writings, prison notebooks, and revolutionary activities, we uncover the profound influence of Marx on one of India’s most radical thinkers.
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Historical Context: The Crucible of Colonial India
To understand Bhagat Singh’s attraction to Karl Marx, we must first situate him within the socio-political landscape of early 20th-century India. Born on September 28, 1907, in Banga, Punjab, Singh grew up in a family steeped in anti-colonial activism. His father, Kishan Singh, and uncles, Ajit Singh and Swaran Singh, were involved in revolutionary and nationalist movements, exposing young Bhagat to the injustices of British rule. The 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where British troops killed hundreds of unarmed civilians in Amritsar, left an indelible mark on the 12-year-old Singh, who visited the site and collected blood-soaked soil as a symbol of resistance.
The early 1920s were a period of intense political ferment in India. The Non-Cooperation Movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi, galvanized millions but was abruptly suspended in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident, where a mob killed policemen. This decision disillusioned many young activists, including Singh, who saw non-violence as inadequate against a brutal colonial regime. The subsequent rise in Hindu-Muslim tensions further exposed the limitations of religious nationalism, pushing Singh toward ideologies that transcended communal divides.
Singh joined the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), a revolutionary group inspired by anarchists like Mikhail Bakunin and the Ghadar Movement, which sought armed rebellion against British rule. However, his exposure to socialist ideas, particularly through the Bolshevik Revolution and Marxist literature, marked a turning point. By 1928, Singh played a key role in transforming the HRA into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), reflecting his growing commitment to Marxist socialism. It was in this intellectual and political crucible that Singh encountered Karl Marx’s revolutionary ideas.
Accessing Marx: Bhagat Singh’s Intellectual Awakening
Bhagat Singh’s engagement with Marxism was not a casual encounter but a deliberate and systematic study, facilitated by his insatiable curiosity and access to revolutionary literature. As a student at the National College in Lahore, founded by nationalist leader Lala Lajpat Rai, Singh spent hours in the Dwarkadas Library, a hub for radical texts. Here, he likely accessed the first English edition of Marx’s Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (1887), translated by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling. His prison notebooks, compiled during his incarceration from 1929 to 1931, reveal extensive notes on Marx and Friedrich Engels, alongside excerpts from Lenin’s Civil War in France and Left-Wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder. These writings, spanning over 200 pages, demonstrate Singh’s deep engagement with Marxist theory.
Singh’s exposure to Marxism was further enriched by the Ghadar Movement, a revolutionary organization of Indian expatriates that embraced socialism after the 1917 Russian Revolution. Ghadarites, trained in communist praxis at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow, brought Marxist literature to Punjab, where Singh was based. He also contributed articles to Kirti, the journal of the Kirti Kisan Party, a socialist organization influenced by Ghadarite ideals. Through these networks, Singh interacted with early Indian communists like Muzaffar Ahmad and Sohan Singh Josh, who introduced him to Marxist concepts.
Singh’s reading extended beyond Capital. In his seminal 1930 essay “Why I Am an Atheist,” he references reading “a few books of Marx,” suggesting familiarity with The Communist Manifesto (1848), co-authored with Engels, and possibly The Poverty of Philosophy (1847). His prison writings include detailed notes on Marxist concepts like surplus value, class struggle, and historical materialism, indicating a rigorous study of primary texts. On March 23, 1931, the day of his execution, Singh was reading Clara Zetkin’s Reminiscences of Lenin, a testament to his unwavering commitment to socialist ideals.
Singh’s ability to access Marxist literature in colonial India, where such texts were often banned, underscores his resourcefulness. He relied on underground networks, smuggled books, and translations to engage with Marx’s ideas. His fluency in English, Punjabi, Hindi, and Urdu allowed him to read Marxist works in multiple languages and share them with comrades, amplifying their impact within revolutionary circles.
Why Marx Resonated: Aligning Theory with Colonial Realities
Bhagat Singh’s attraction to Karl Marx was rooted in the striking parallels between Marx’s critique of capitalism and the realities of colonial India. Marx’s ideas provided Singh with a framework to analyze British imperialism, economic exploitation, and social divisions, while offering a vision of revolutionary change. Several factors explain the profound resonance of Marx’s philosophy:
1. Critique of Capitalist Exploitation and Imperialism
In Capital, Marx dissects capitalism as a system driven by the extraction of surplus value, where workers produce more value than they are paid for, with the excess appropriated by capitalists as profit. Singh saw this dynamic mirrored in British colonial rule, which systematically drained India’s wealth. The British East India Company and later the colonial government extracted resources through taxation, land revenue systems like the Permanent Settlement, and exploitation of Indian labor in plantations and factories. Singh’s jail notebooks reflect this understanding, noting that British rule was sustained not by divine will but by “power… with guns and rifles.”
Marx’s analysis of imperialism as an extension of capitalism further resonated with Singh. In works like On Colonialism, Marx described British rule in India as a tool of capitalist expansion, destroying traditional economies to create markets for British goods. Singh applied this lens to India’s deindustrialization, where artisans were impoverished by British policies favoring Manchester textiles. In a 1928 article for Kirti, Singh wrote, “The British have sucked our blood for their own profit,” echoing Marx’s view of colonialism as predatory capitalism. This perspective transformed Singh’s struggle from a narrow nationalist fight into a global battle against capitalist imperialism.
2. Vision of a Social Revolution
Marx’s call for a proletarian revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a classless, stateless society captivated Singh, who sought not just political independence but a radical restructuring of society. In his 1931 document “To Young Political Workers,” Singh defines revolution as “the complete overthrow of the existing social order and its replacement with the socialist order” based on “Marxist principles.” He criticized the Indian National Congress, led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, for pursuing an independence that would merely transfer power to Indian elites, leaving workers and peasants oppressed.
Singh’s Marxist-inspired vision is evident in the HSRA’s manifesto, which advocated for a socialist state where “the laborer, the worker, and the peasant” would hold power. He organized through the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, a youth organization that promoted class unity, and supported workers’ strikes, such as the 1928 Bombay textile workers’ strike. Marx’s emphasis on the proletariat as the agent of revolution inspired Singh to prioritize mobilizing India’s working masses, even in a predominantly agrarian society.
3. Atheism and Materialist Philosophy
Singh’s rejection of religion, articulated in “Why I Am an Atheist,” was heavily influenced by Marx’s view of religion as the “opium of the people,” a tool used by ruling classes to pacify the oppressed. In colonial India, where British policies exacerbated Hindu-Muslim tensions, Singh saw religion as a divisive force that distracted from class struggle. He wrote, “Society has to fight this belief as well as idol worship and narrow conception of religion,” aligning with Marx’s materialist philosophy, which prioritized economic and social conditions over spiritual explanations.
Singh’s atheism was also a critique of caste and communalism, which he viewed as obstacles to revolutionary unity. In a 1928 article titled “Communal Riots and Their Cure,” he blamed religious leaders and the press for inciting violence, echoing Marx’s argument that ruling classes manipulate ideological divisions to maintain power. By embracing Marx’s historical materialism, Singh sought to unite India’s diverse communities under a common class-based struggle.
4. Inspiration from the Bolshevik Revolution
The 1917 Russian Revolution, which operationalized Marxist theory under Lenin’s leadership, was a pivotal influence on Singh. The Bolsheviks’ success in overthrowing a feudal-capitalist system and establishing a workers’ state electrified anti-colonial movements worldwide. Singh was particularly drawn to Lenin, whom he admired more than Marx for his practical revolutionary strategies. On January 21, 1930, during the Lahore Conspiracy Case trial, Singh and his comrades wore red scarves and sent a telegram to the Third International, declaring, “The proletariat will win. Capitalism will be defeated.” This act of solidarity with the Soviet experiment reflected Singh’s belief in Marxism as a viable path to liberation.
Singh’s prison writings include extensive notes on Lenin’s application of Marxism, particularly the concept of a vanguard party to lead the revolution. While India’s communist movement was still nascent, Singh’s engagement with Bolshevik ideas shaped his vision of a disciplined revolutionary organization, as seen in the HSRA’s structure.
5. Disillusionment with Nationalism and Anarchism
Singh’s early revolutionary activities were influenced by anarchism, inspired by figures like Bakunin and Ghadarite martyr Kartar Singh Sarabha, who advocated individual acts of violence against colonial officials. However, events like the 1922 Hindu-Muslim riots following the Non-Cooperation Movement’s suspension exposed the divisive nature of religious nationalism. Singh also grew critical of anarchism’s lack of a broader strategy, recognizing that assassinations alone could not dismantle colonial rule.
Marx’s class-based analysis offered a unifying alternative, emphasizing solidarity among workers and peasants across religious and regional lines. In a 1929 article, Singh wrote, “The real revolutionary armies are in the villages and factories,” reflecting Marx’s focus on collective action. This shift from individual terrorism to mass mobilization marked Singh’s ideological maturation under Marxist influence.
Manifestations of Marx’s Influence
Marx’s ideas permeated Singh’s revolutionary praxis, shaping his writings, actions, and organizational efforts:
- Hindustan Socialist Republican Association: The renaming of the HRA to HSRA in 1928 was a direct outcome of Singh’s Marxist convictions. The HSRA’s manifesto called for a socialist revolution to abolish private property and establish a workers’ state, drawing explicitly on Marxist principles.
- Revolutionary Propaganda: Singh used newspapers, pamphlets, and public acts to spread Marxist ideas. The 1929 Assembly bombing, where he and Batukeshwar Dutt threw non-lethal bombs to protest repressive laws, was accompanied by leaflets declaring, “It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear.” The slogan “Inquilab Zindabad” (Long Live Revolution), popularized by Singh, encapsulated his Marxist vision of systemic change.
- Critique of Communalism: Singh’s writings consistently opposed religious divisions, advocating for secular class unity. His 1928 article on communal riots urged workers to reject religious propaganda, aligning with Marx’s view that ideology serves ruling-class interests.
- Internationalism: Singh’s vision transcended national boundaries, as seen in his call for “Vishvabandhuta” (world friendship) and his rejection of narrow nationalism. In a letter to young activists, he wrote, “The struggle in India is part of the worldwide struggle of the proletariat,” echoing Marx’s internationalist ethos.
- Prison Activism: During his imprisonment, Singh led a 116-day hunger strike in 1929 to demand better conditions for political prisoners, framing it as a class struggle against colonial oppression. His writings from jail, including “Why I Am an Atheist” and “The Red Pamphlet,” articulate a Marxist worldview, critiquing capitalism and imperialism.
Challenges and Limitations
Despite his deep engagement with Marxism, Singh faced challenges in fully realizing a Marxist revolution in India. The country’s predominantly agrarian economy, with a small industrial proletariat, limited the immediate applicability of Marx’s urban-focused theories. India’s caste system and religious diversity further complicated class-based mobilization. Singh’s reliance on individual acts of violence, such as the 1928 killing of British officer John Saunders in retaliation for Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, diverged from Marx’s emphasis on mass movements. However, Singh later acknowledged the limitations of terrorism, writing in 1930 that “the real revolutionary work lies in organizing the masses.”
Singh also maintained a critical distance from the Communist Party of India (CPI), founded in 1925. The CPI’s Stalinist leadership prioritized alliances with the bourgeoisie, which Singh saw as a betrayal of revolutionary principles. His preference for Lenin’s radicalism over Stalin’s moderation reflects his independent interpretation of Marxism. Nonetheless, Singh’s youth and short life—cut short at 23—prevented him from fully developing a cohesive Marxist strategy for India.
Legacy and Misappropriation
Bhagat Singh’s Marxist convictions are often obscured by his image as a nationalist hero, a distortion perpetuated by both colonial authorities and post-independence narratives. The British portrayed him as a terrorist to discredit his revolutionary ideas, while some Indian political groups, particularly right-wing nationalists, have attempted to appropriate him as a symbol of cultural nationalism, ignoring his atheism and socialism. For example, organizations like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) have claimed Singh as a Hindu patriot, despite his explicit rejection of religious ideology.
However, Singh’s writings and actions leave no doubt about his Marxist orientation. His jail notebooks, essays, and revolutionary propaganda consistently advocate for a socialist revolution, class unity, and the abolition of exploitation. Historians like K.N. Panikkar and Irfan Habib have described Singh as one of India’s earliest Marxists, whose ideas laid the groundwork for later socialist movements. His hunger strike, demand for secularism, and internationalist outlook remain powerful symbols of resistance against oppression.
In contemporary India, Singh’s Marxist legacy continues to inspire activists and scholars. Movements for workers’ rights, land reforms, and social justice draw on his vision of a classless society. However, the mainstreaming of his image as a patriotic martyr risks diluting his radical critique of capitalism and imperialism. Reclaiming Singh as a Marxist revolutionary requires centering his writings and recognizing his debt to Karl Marx.
Conclusion
Karl Marx’s influence on Bhagat Singh was transformative, providing the intellectual and ideological foundation for his evolution from a nationalist revolutionary to a socialist internationalist. Marx’s critique of capitalist exploitation, vision of proletarian revolution, materialist philosophy, and internationalist perspective resonated deeply with Singh’s experiences of colonial oppression, communal division, and the limitations of moderate nationalism. Through his voracious reading, revolutionary activities, and writings—particularly his prison notebooks and essays like “Why I Am an Atheist”—Singh internalized and adapted Marxist principles to India’s context, advocating for a socialist revolution that would dismantle both British rule and systemic inequalities.
Despite his short life and the challenges of applying Marxism in a colonial, agrarian society, Singh’s engagement with Marx left an enduring legacy. His insistence on class struggle, secularism, and global solidarity remains a powerful call to action in an era of growing inequality and division. By revisiting Singh’s Marxist roots, we honor his vision of a world free from exploitation—a vision that owes much to the revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx. As Singh wrote in his final days, “The struggle does not end with us; it continues until the toiling masses are free.” His life and thought, shaped by Marx’s enduring insights, continue to inspire those who seek a just and equitable future.
Sources:
- Bhagat Singh’s prison notebooks and writings, including “Why I Am an Atheist” and “To Young Political Workers.”
- Historical accounts from The Jail Notebook and Other Writings by Chaman Lal.
- Scholarly analyses by K.N. Panikkar, Irfan Habib, and S. Irfan Habib.
- Articles from Kirti and HSRA manifestos.
- Secondary sources on Marx’s Capital and The Communist Manifesto.
- Contextual references to the Ghadar Movement, Bolshevik Revolution, and early Indian communism.
- Public domain materials on Singh’s life and trial.
