The Destruction and Repurposing of Jainism’s Temples: Historical Evidence and Analysis

Introduction

Jainism, an ancient Indian religion emphasizing non-violence, asceticism, and spiritual liberation, has a rich history of temple construction dating back to at least the 6th century BCE. These temples, often elaborately carved and serving as pilgrimage centers, were built in regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, and South India under royal patronage. However, Jain temples frequently became targets during periods of political conquest, religious rivalry, and economic looting. Destructions and repurposings occurred primarily under Muslim rulers from the 8th to 18th centuries, driven by iconoclasm, political assertion, and wealth extraction, and to a lesser extent under Hindu rulers in sectarian conflicts, particularly between Shaivites/Vaishnavites and Jains.

Perpetrators belonged mainly to Islam (Turkic, Afghan, and Mughal invaders/rulers) and Hinduism (Shaivite and Vaishnavite sects/kings, often influenced by Brahminical ideologies). While Muslim actions were often large-scale and documented in Persian chronicles as triumphs over idolatry, Hindu-Jain conflicts were more localized, stemming from theological disputes over Vedic authority and rituals. This included Brahminical efforts to reassert Vedic Hinduism against sramana traditions like Jainism. Specific Hindu kings and saints involved in destructions or conversions are detailed below, based on hagiographies, inscriptions, and scholarly analyses. This article draws on manuscripts, inscriptions, edicts, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) findings, and travelers’ accounts to provide a substantiated narrative, avoiding unsubstantiated exaggerations.

Historical Context

Jainism thrived in ancient India, with evidence from Mathura depicting Svetambara iconography and inscriptions from the Kushan era (1st–3rd centuries CE). By the medieval period, Jain centers faced decline due to Bhakti movements in Hinduism and Islamic incursions. Manuscripts like the Vividha Tirtha Kalpa by Jinaprabha Suri (14th century) detail the building and destruction of temples, including under Muhammad bin Tughluq’s rule, covering tirthas in Gujarat and beyond. This period saw widespread persecution, including temple demolitions and idol smuggling for safety.

Destructions by Muslim Rulers

Islamic invasions from the 8th century targeted Jain (and Hindu) temples for their wealth and as symbols of subjugation. Chronicles portray these as religious victories, though motivations included politics and economics. Reused materials (spolia) in mosques and forts are common archaeological markers.

Early Invasions (8th–12th Centuries)

Raids began with the sack of Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 782 CE by Arab-Turkic forces, destroying Jain temples and libraries. Mahmud of Ghazni’s campaigns (1001–1025 CE) ravaged Jain sites in Gujarat; Persian texts like Tarikh-i-Yamini describe idol smashing and looting.

The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi, 1193 CE), built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, used materials from 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples. A Persian inscription on the eastern gateway boasts of this destruction during the Tomara and Chauhan reigns. ASI excavations (1914) by Gordon Sanderson confirmed temple remnants, with pillars showing Hindu motifs and defaced Jain Tirthankara figures integrated into the structure. Traveler Ibn Battuta (14th century) noted the site’s pre-Islamic Hindu origins, mentioning copper idols at the gate.

In Ajmer, the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra Mosque (1199 CE) incorporated pillars from 20–30 demolished Hindu/Jain temples (11th–12th centuries). Inscriptions date completion to 1199 CE under Qutb-ud-din Aibak and enhancements in 1213 CE by Iltutmish. ASI surveys (1875–76) unearthed Sanskrit inscriptions from a pre-existing college and Jain shrine built by Vigraharaja IV (1153 CE), with relics now in Ajmer Museum. Alexander Cunningham noted 700 pillars with ornate carvings reused.

Delhi Sultanate and Later Periods (13th–16th Centuries)

Alauddin Khilji and Firuz Shah Tughlaq targeted prosperous Jain sites in Gujarat. Jinaprabha Suri’s Vividha Tirtha Kalpa records iconoclasm under Tughlaq rule. In Vidisha, the Bijamandal Mosque reused Jain temple materials, per epigraphic evidence.

South Indian examples include temple destructions documented in Persian chronicles, with materials repurposed. Travelers like Ibn Battuta described temple wealth, motivating raids.

Mughal Era (16th–18th Centuries)

Akbar showed tolerance, influenced by Jain monks like Hiravijaya Suri, issuing firmans for protection. However, Aurangzeb’s 1669 farman ordered demolition of non-Muslim temples and schools, affecting Jain sites in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Chintamani Parshvanath Temple (Ahmedabad) was partially razed, materials used in mosques. François Bernier (17th century) noted such destructions.

ASI findings at Zafar Khan Ghazi Mosque (Gujarat) reveal reused Jain carvings.

Persecutions by Hindu Rulers and Brahminical Figures

Intra-Indic conflicts arose from Jain rejection of Vedic rituals, leading to Brahminical efforts to reassert Vedic authority. Shaivite and Vaishnavite kings, often guided by Brahmin advisors or saints, destroyed, converted, or repurposed Jain temples, especially during the Bhakti movement (7th–12th centuries). These acts were framed in hagiographies as triumphs over “heretical” faiths, though evidence varies from archaeological to legendary.

Early Medieval Period (6th–10th Centuries)

• Hun Ruler Mihirakula (6th century CE): Influenced by Brahmins, he destroyed Jain (and Buddhist) monasteries in Kashmir and Punjab. Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th-century chronicle) records this, portraying him as a tyrant who targeted non-Vedic sites.
• Pandya King Nedumaran (also Koon Pandiyan or Kun Pandya, 7th century CE): Converted from Jainism to Shaivism by saint Jnana Sambandar after a debate in Madurai. This led to the alleged impalement of 8,000 Jains and conversion of Jain temples to Shaivite ones. The Periya Puranam (12th-century Tamil text) glorifies the event, while Jain manuscripts like Jivandhara Champu lament the persecution. Idols of 63 Nayanar saints (Shaivite devotees, including Brahmins) adorn Tamil temples, symbolizing the anti-Jain campaign. Archaeological evidence shows repurposed Jain sites in Madurai’s Meenakshi Temple extensions.
• Adi Shankara (8th century CE): Brahmin philosopher who revived Advaita Vedanta. Alleged to have transformed deserted or active Jain temples in South India, converting them to Hindu sites with Shiva lingams. Evidence includes hagiographies like Shankara Digvijaya, claiming debates and defeats of Jains/Buddhists. Specific claims: Converted Jain temples in Kerala and Tamil Nadu; some sources allege violence, though others see it as philosophical revival without destruction. Archaeological shifts in sites like Sringeri support conversions during his era.

Later Medieval Period (11th–13th Centuries)

• Hoysala King Bittideva (Vishnuvardhana, 12th century CE): Originally Jain, converted to Vaishnavism by saint Ramanujacharya after a miracle (curing his daughter). This led to mass conversions and repurposing of Jain basadis (temples) into Vaishnava shrines in Karnataka. Inscriptions in Epigraphica Karnatica (Vol. II, 344) detail protections for remaining Jain sites under Vaishnava oversight, but many were altered. Ramanuja, a Brahmin, debated Jain scholars, leading to temple takeovers.
• Kalachuri King Bijjala II (12th century CE): A Jain king in Karnataka, but his minister Basava (founder of Lingayat Shaivism) converted many Jains to Lingayatism, sparking conflicts. This led to social upheaval, with some Jain temples repurposed amid sectarian violence. Basava’s movement challenged Jain dominance, resulting in conversions and possible destructions, as per Lingayat texts like Basava Purana. After Bijjala’s assassination (attributed to Lingayats), backlash affected Jains.
• Other Brahminical Influences: Pushyamitra Shunga (2nd century BCE), a Brahmin king, is accused of persecuting Buddhists, with some extensions to Jains, but evidence is weak and debated (no archaeological confirmation). Vijayanagara kings (14th–16th centuries) repurposed some Jain sites amid Bhakti fervor. ASI findings in Hoysala-era Karnataka show defaced Jain idols replaced in temples.

Jains occasionally persecuted others under their rule, though rare.

Case Studies

• Qutub Minar Complex: ASI admits reused Hindu/Jain deities; inscription records 27 temples destroyed.
• Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra: Jain shrine (660 CE) converted; ASI tablets from Sanskrit college.
• Gyanvapi Mosque (Varanasi): ASI (2024) found reused temple pillars with Jain-like motifs, though primarily Hindu.
• Madurai Meenakshi Temple: Built over Jain site post-Sambandar’s victory; repurposed materials.
• Belur and Halebidu (Karnataka): Hoysala temples with converted Jain elements under Vishnuvardhana.

Travelers like James Tod (19th century) described ruined Jain temples in Rajasthan from Muslim raids.

Conclusion

Evidence confirms widespread Jain temple destructions, primarily by Muslim rulers for conquest/iconoclasm, and secondarily by Hindu kings and Brahminical saints in sectarian disputes. Figures like Nedumaran, Bittideva, Adi Shankara, and Basava exemplify Hindu/Brahminical involvement, often through conversions rather than total demolition. This contributed to Jainism’s regional decline but fostered resilience. Modern ASI surveys continue uncovering layers, promoting nuanced historical understanding.

List of Sources, References, Inscriptions, Edicts, and Archaeological Evidence

Sources and References (Books, Articles, Manuscripts, Chronicles)

• Manuscripts: Vividha Tirtha Kalpa by Jinaprabha Suri (1332–1389 CE) – Details temple destructions under Tughlaqs. Jivandhara Champu – Laments South Indian persecutions.
• Chronicles: Tarikh-i-Yamini (Ghazni raids); Periya Puranam by Sekkilar (12th century) – Shaivite accounts of Jain conflicts, including Madurai impalement. Rajatarangini by Kalhana (12th century) – Mihirakula’s destructions. Basava Purana – Lingayat-Jain conflicts. Shankara Digvijaya – Adi Shankara’s victories.
• Books/Articles: “Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them” by Sita Ram Goel (epigraphic evidence); “Flight of Deities and Rebirth of Temples” by Meenakshi Jain (2019); “Against the Grain” by D.N. Jha (Brahminical destructions); “Jains and Muslim Iconoclasm” (Jainpedia.org); “The Hindu Confrontation with the Jaina and the Buddhist” (journal.fi). Articles: “On how Jains were won over” (The Hindu, 2016) – Ramanuja’s conversions; “Retracing the ups and downs of Jainism” (New Indian Express, 2022); “Jain Traditions in Ancient-Medieval Kerala” (Indica Today, 2024).
• Travelers’ Accounts: Ibn Battuta (14th century); François Bernier (17th century); James Tod’s “Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan” (19th century).
• Scholarly Works: Alexander Cunningham’s ASI reports (1871); Har Bilas Sarda’s “Ajmer: Historical and Descriptive” (1911); Koenraad Elst’s talks on Hindu-Jain conflicts. Wikipedia entries on History of Jainism, Persecution of Buddhists/Jains. Blogs/Posts: MythBuster (2020) on persecutions; VedKaBhed (2014).

Inscriptions

• Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi): Persian inscription (1193 CE) – Records destruction of 27 temples.
• Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Ajmer): Inscriptions (1199 CE, 1200 CE, 1213 CE) – Supervisors and dates; Sanskrit tablets (1153 CE) from Vigraharaja IV’s college.
• Jain Temple Inscriptions (Various): 1166 CE in Gujarat recording destructions; Devanagari marble pillar (1405 CE) in Ajmer.
• Gyanvapi (Varanasi): 34 inscriptions (Arabic-Persian, Devanagari) found by ASI (2024).
• Epigraphica Karnatica (Vol. II, 344): Bukka Raya’s decree (1368 CE) on Jain temple protections post-conversions; Hoysala inscriptions on temple repurposings.

Edicts

• Aurangzeb’s Farman (1669 CE): Demolition of infidel temples.
• Akbar’s Firmans (Late 16th Century): Protected Jain temples.

Archaeological Evidence (ASI Findings, Excavations)

• Qutub Minar Complex: ASI (1914) revealed temple remnants; reused pillars with Jain motifs.
• Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra: ASI (1875–76, 1900–03) unearthed tablets, sculptures; 344 pillars from temples.
• Gyanvapi Mosque: ASI (2024) – Reused pillars, Jain-like motifs.
• Other Sites: ASI restorations in Wayanad (2022); Hoysala temples (Karnataka) with defaced Jain idols; Khajuraho (Jain temples on Buddhist sites, Brahminical context); Vidisha (transformed sites); Spolia in Bijamandal, Zafar Khan Ghazi. General: Targeted destructions confirmed, no mass exaggerations.