The British colonial period (c. 1780–1947) marked a transformative era in uncovering India’s ancient past, which had largely vanished from the collective memory of traditional Indian scholars, including Brahmin pandits well-versed in Vedic, Puranic, and Sanskrit texts. By the 18th century, key chapters of India’s history—such as the Mauryan Empire and Emperor Ashoka, the Indus Valley Civilization, Buddhist universities like Nalanda, the classical Tamil Sangam age, and even the post-Gupta Harshavardhana era—were either completely unknown, forgotten, or undecipherable. Most strikingly, Ashoka’s majestic pillars and inscriptions, scattered across the subcontinent, were misidentified by locals and pandits as “Bhima’s Pillars,” attributed to the Mahabharata hero Bhima due to their grandeur and mystery. Through systematic excavations, decipherment of ancient scripts, and analysis of coins and inscriptions, British archaeologists, epigraphists, numismatists, and scholars, often in collaboration with Indian counterparts, reconstructed a comprehensive timeline from 3300 BCE to 1200 CE. This article explores these rediscoveries, including the Harshavardhana era (606–647 CE), assessing whether it too was lost to pandits’ memory, and provides detailed evidence, key figures, and references to primary sources, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) reports, and recent studies.
Table of Contents
The Historical Amnesia: A Forgotten Past
By the 18th century, India’s historical memory relied heavily on oral traditions, religious texts (Vedas, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata), and fragmented Jain and Buddhist literature. These sources, while rich in philosophical and literary content, often lacked precise chronologies, geographical specificity, or references to major historical entities. Several factors contributed to this amnesia:
- Decline of Buddhism: By the 12th century CE, Buddhism, which preserved detailed historical records (e.g., Pali chronicles), had nearly vanished from mainland India due to invasions, patronage shifts, and assimilation into Hinduism.
- Cultural Disruptions: Centuries of invasions (e.g., Huns, Turks) and regional fragmentation disrupted historical continuity.
- Oral Tradition: Unlike written chronicles in China or Europe, India’s reliance on oral transmission led to the loss of secular histories.
- Script Obsolescence: Ancient scripts like Brahmi and Kharoshthi became unreadable, rendering inscriptions useless to pandits.
As a result:
- The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE) and Ashoka were unknown in northern India, surviving only in Sri Lankan texts (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa).
- The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE) was absent from any tradition.
- Buddhist universities like Nalanda and Takshashila were forgotten, their ruins misidentified as forts or temples.
- Ashokan pillars (e.g., Delhi, Allahabad, Sarnath) were called “Bhima’s Pillars” or “Bhima Sen’s Staff,” linked to the Mahabharata’s Bhima.
- The Harshavardhana era (606–647 CE), despite its cultural and political significance, was known only vaguely through later texts, with its precise chronology and achievements lost to most pandits.
British colonial scholars, often driven by imperial agendas to “civilize” or “rescue” India’s past, filled these gaps through rigorous archaeological, epigraphic, and numismatic work. Their efforts, supported by the Asiatic Society of Bengal (est. 1784) and the ASI (est. 1861), laid the foundation for modern Indian historiography, though Indian scholars under colonial patronage also played crucial roles.
Major Discoveries: Rediscovering India’s Lost History
1. Ashoka and the Mauryan Empire: From “Bhima’s Pillars” to Imperial Edicts
What Was Lost:
- By the 18th century, Ashoka (r. c. 268–232 BCE) and the Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE), which unified most of the Indian subcontinent, were forgotten in northern India. Only distorted references to Chandragupta (as “Sandracottus” in Greek accounts) and Bindusara existed in Puranas or Jain texts.
- Ashokan inscriptions, written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi on pillars and rocks, were undecipherable. Locals and pandits misidentified the pillars as relics of Bhima, the Mahabharata hero.
British Contribution:
- Decipherment of Brahmi: In 1837, James Prinsep, a British numismatist and secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, deciphered the Brahmi script by analyzing Ashokan Rock Edicts (e.g., Girnar, Dhauli, Shahbazgarhi) and Pillar Edicts (e.g., Delhi-Topra, Allahabad, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Sarnath). His identification of “Devanampiya Piyadasi” as Ashoka revealed a Buddhist emperor who promoted dhamma (ethical governance).
- Evidence from Edicts:
- Major Rock Edict XIII (Kalinga): Describes Ashoka’s remorse after the Kalinga War, marking his embrace of Buddhism.
- Pillar Edict at Sarnath: Details Ashoka’s support for the Buddhist Sangha and measures against schisms.
- Minor Rock Edict at Maski: Explicitly names “Asoka,” confirming his identity.
- Edicts mention hospitals, tree planting, wells, and Buddhist missions to Sri Lanka, Greece, Egypt, and Central Asia.
- Brahmin Scholars’ Response:
- In the early 1800s, British officials like Captain William Wilford (Asiatic Researches, 1799), Colin Mackenzie, and Francis Buchanan-Hamilton showed Ashokan pillars and inscriptions to Brahmin pandits in Delhi, Allahabad, Sarnath, and other sites.
- Pandits’ Reaction: “This is some ancient script; we cannot read it.” Pandits admitted ignorance of Brahmi and had no knowledge of Ashoka or Buddhism’s historical role.
- Local Names for Pillars:
- Delhi Iron Pillar: “Bhima’s Peg” or “Bhima Sen’s Pillar” (also misattributed to Tomar kings like Anangpal).
- Allahabad Pillar: “Bhima’s Flagstaff” or “Bhima’s Column.”
- Sarnath Pillar: “Bhima Sen’s Staff.”
- Lauriya-Nandangarh, Topra, Meerut Pillars: “Bhima’s Column” or “King Bhima’s Stick.”
- Reason for Misidentification: The pillars’ polished sandstone, height (10–15 meters), and durability led to their association with Bhima’s mythical strength, as no historical context for Ashoka or the Mauryas remained.
- Impact: Prinsep’s decipherment unveiled a pan-Indian empire, Ashoka’s Buddhist legacy, and his global influence. The ASI, founded by Alexander Cunningham in 1861, excavated Mauryan sites like Pataliputra (Patna), confirming its status as the capital described by Megasthenes in Indica.
References:
- Prinsep, J. (1837). Interpretation of the Most Ancient of the Inscriptions on the Pillars Called Lāts, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 6, pp. 566–609.
- Cunningham, A. (1877). Inscriptions of Asoka, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. 1, ASI.
- Allen, C. (2012). Ashoka: The Search for India’s Lost Emperor, Little, Brown.
2. Indus Valley Civilization: A Bronze-Age Marvel Rediscovered
What Was Lost:
- The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE), one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, was completely unknown to Indian traditions. No texts, oral stories, or archaeological memory referenced its cities, script, or trade networks.
British Contribution:
- Excavations: Between 1921 and 1934, John Marshall, ASI Director-General, with R.D. Banerji, Daya Ram Sahni, and M.S. Vats, excavated Harappa (Punjab), Mohenjo-daro (Sindh), Chanhudaro, Lothal (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), and Dholavira (Gujarat). These revealed a civilization with planned cities, covered drains, granaries, and standardized weights.
- Key Evidence:
- Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): A watertight structure for ritual or civic use.
- Seals: Over 2,000 steatite seals with pictographic script and animal motifs (e.g., unicorn, humped bull), indicating trade with Mesopotamia (seals found in Ur, Susa).
- Dockyard at Lothal: Evidence of maritime trade with the Persian Gulf.
- Standardized Weights: Cubical stone weights in binary ratios, showing advanced metrology.
- Undeciphered Script: Over 400 signs, still unreadable despite efforts by linguists like Iravatham Mahadevan.
- Recent Studies: Excavations at Rakhigarhi (Haryana) by Vasant Shinde (Deccan College) since 1997 show it as the largest Harappan site (350 hectares). A 2019 DNA study (Narasingham et al., Cell) confirmed genetic continuity between Harappans and modern South Asians, dating cultural roots to c. 10,000 BCE.
References:
- Marshall, J. (1931). Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, 3 Vols., Arthur Probsthain.
- Shinde, V. (2020). Rakhigarhi Excavations, Deccan College Research Reports.
- Narasingham, V.M., et al. (2019). The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia, Cell, Vol. 178, pp. 987–1001.
3. Ancient Buddhist Universities: Lost Centers of Global Learning
What Was Lost:
- Buddhist universities like Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramashila, Odantapuri, Somapura (Paharpur), Jagaddala, Valabhi, Pushpagiri, and Nagarjunakonda were erased from Brahmanical memory. Their ruins were misidentified as forts, temples, or ignored.
British Contribution:
- Nalanda: Rediscovered in 1812 by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton; excavated by Alexander Cunningham and ASI (1860s–1930s). Revealed a 5th–12th century CE university with 10,000–20,000 students from China (e.g., Xuanzang, Yijing), Korea, Tibet, and Indonesia, studying logic, medicine, astronomy, and grammar.
- Takshashila (Taxila): Identified by Cunningham in the 1860s; excavated by John Marshall (1913–1934), showing a learning center from 6th century BCE to 5th century CE, mentioned in Pali texts and by Greek historians like Arrian.
- Other Sites: James Burgess and ASI teams documented Vikramashila (Bihar), Somapura (Bangladesh), and Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), uncovering monasteries, stupas, and libraries.
- Evidence:
- Nalanda: A 1.5 km² campus with nine-story libraries, dormitories, and copper-plate grants (e.g., Devapala’s grant, 9th century CE) detailing endowments.
- Taxila: Surgical instruments (confirming medical education) and Gandharan art blending Greek and Indian styles.
- Somapura: A massive stupa and monastic complex, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
References:
- Cunningham, A. (1854). Bhilsa Topes, ASI Reports.
- Marshall, J. (1951). Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Excavations, 3 Vols., ASI.
- UNESCO (1988). areth World Heritage Site Report.
4. Decipherment of Ancient Scripts: Unlocking the Written Past
What Was Lost:
- Scripts like Brahmi, Kharoshthi, early Tamil-Brahmi, Grantha, and Siddham were unreadable, rendering inscriptions on pillars, rocks, caves, and copper plates meaningless to pandits.
British Contribution:
- Brahmi: Deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837, starting with Ashokan edicts and extending to Gupta, Pallava, and later inscriptions.
- Kharoshthi: Decoded by Prinsep and others in the 1830s, used in Gandhara and Central Asia for Indo-Greek and Kushana records.
- Tamil-Brahmi: Identified in South Indian cave inscriptions (3rd century BCE) by E. Hultzsch, ASI’s first Government Epigraphist, revealing early Tamil literacy.
- Grantha and Siddham: Studied by Georg Bühler, enabling the reading of Pallava and Buddhist inscriptions.
- Evidence: The ASI’s Epigraphy Branch (est. 1886) cataloged over 100,000 inscriptions, including Ashokan edicts, Gupta grants (e.g., Banskhera copper plate), and Tamil cave inscriptions (e.g., Jambai, Tamil Nadu).
References:
- Hultzsch, E. (1890). South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 1, ASI.
- Prinsep, J. (1838). On the Inscriptions of the Bhilsa Topes, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 7, pp. 156–198.
- Bühler, G. (1898). On the Origin of the Indian Brahma Alphabet, K.J. Trübner.
5. Political History: Reconstructing Empires and Republics
What Was Lost:
- Precise chronologies and geographies of the Sixteen Mahajanapadas, Nanda Empire, Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, Satavahanas, and Guptas were forgotten or vague in Puranic accounts.
British Contribution:
- Mahajanapadas: Alexander Cunningham and Vincent Smith mapped the 16 states (e.g., Magadha, Kosala, Vajji) using Buddhist Pali texts (Anguttara Nikaya), Jain Bhagavati Sutra, and inscriptions.
- Nanda Empire: Reconstructed via Greek accounts (e.g., Megasthenes’ Indica, preserved in Arrian’s Anabasis) and Puranic lists, showing its wealth and military power (c. 4th century BCE).
- Indo-Greeks and Kushanas: Over 40 Indo-Greek kings (e.g., Menander/Milinda, c. 2nd century BCE) and Kushana rulers (e.g., Kanishka, c. 1st–2nd century CE) identified through coins by Percy Gardner, E.J. Rapson, and Cunningham. Kanishka’s Rabatak inscription (Afghanistan, deciphered 1993 but based on colonial coin studies) confirmed his empire’s extent.
- Satavahanas: Reconstructed from coins, Prakrit inscriptions (e.g., Naneghat, Nasik), and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE Greek text), showing Deccan dominance (1st century BCE–2nd century CE).
- Guptas: J.F. Fleet deciphered Samudragupta’s Allahabad Pillar inscription (c. 4th century CE) and Chandragupta II’s Iron Pillar inscription, establishing the 4th–6th century CE “Golden Age.” Gupta gold coins provided precise regnal years.
References:
- Fleet, J.F. (1888). Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. 3, ASI.
- Rapson, E.J. (1908). Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, Western Ksatrapas, etc., British Museum.
- Smith, V.A. (1906). The Early History of India, Oxford University Press.
6. Classical Tamil Sangam Age: A Rediscovered Literary and Cultural Era
What Was Lost:
- Northern Indian scholars had no knowledge of the Tamil Sangam period (c. 3rd century BCE–3rd century CE) or its literature, preserved only in fragmented Tamil traditions in South India.
British Contribution:
- Compilation of Sangam Texts: British missionary Robert Caldwell and Tamil scholars like U.V. Swaminatha Iyer (under colonial patronage) compiled and published texts like Tolkāppiyam (grammar), Akananuru, Purananuru (poetry), Silappatikaram, and Manimekalai (epics), revealing a sophisticated Tamil civilization with poetry, trade, and urban life.
- Archaeological Evidence: Excavations at Arikamedu (Pondicherry) by Mortimer Wheeler (1940s) uncovered Roman pottery and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, confirming trade with Rome. ASI excavations at Keezhadi (Tamil Nadu, 2014–present) found urban settlements and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions dated to 6th century BCE, pushing Tamil literacy earlier than previously thought.
- Evidence: Keezhadi’s findings include brick structures, ring wells, and pottery with Tamil-Brahmi names, indicating a literate urban culture.
References:
- Caldwell, R. (1856). A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages, Harrison.
- Ramakrishna, A. (2019). Keezhadi Excavation Reports, ASI.
- Mahadevan, I. (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy, Harvard Oriental Series.
7. Rock-Cut Architecture and Buddhist Stupa Sites: Art and Faith Rediscovered
What Was Lost:
- Sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Karle, Kanheri, Bhaja, Barabar, and Udayagiri were unknown or misidentified as secular structures (e.g., forts, royal residences).
British Contribution:
- Ajanta Caves: Rediscovered in 1819 by British officers hunting a tiger; documented by James Fergusson and James Burgess for their Buddhist frescoes and sculptures (2nd century BCE–5th century CE), depicting Jataka stories and royal courts.
- Sanchi Stupa: Excavated by Cunningham (1851), revealing Ashokan relics and intricate gateways with Jataka and Buddhist narratives, unknown to contemporary Indians.
- Other Sites: Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), Nagarjunakonda, and Barabar Caves (Bihar, with Ashokan inscriptions) were cataloged by ASI. Sculptures and railings were sent to museums (e.g., British Museum, Madras Museum).
- Evidence: Ajanta’s paintings and Sanchi’s gateways preserved Buddhist art and stories lost in India. Barabar’s polished caves, inscribed with Ashokan dedications, confirmed Mauryan patronage.
References:
- Fergusson, J. (1868). Tree and Serpent Worship, ASI Reports.
- Burgess, J. (1887). Buddhist Stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta, ASI.
- Mitra, D. (1971). Buddhist Monuments, Sahitya Samsad.
8. Ancient Science, Trade, and Technology: Contextualizing India’s Achievements
What Was Lost:
- The historical context of India’s scientific texts (Aryabhatiya, Sushruta Samhita) and trade networks was unclear. Pandits knew these texts but not their antiquity or global significance.
British Contribution:
- Science and Mathematics: H.T. Colebrooke and Reuben Burrow translated Aryabhatiya (Aryabhata, 5th century CE, earth’s rotation, heliocentric ideas), Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Brahmagupta, 7th century CE, gravity, zero), Surya Siddhanta, and Lilavati (Bhaskara II, 12th century CE), dating Indian advancements centuries before Europe. John Playfair popularized these in Europe.
- Medicine: *Sushruta Samhita (surgery, c. 6th century BCE) and Charaka Samhita (medicine, c. 2nd century CE) were translated by *Hessler* and Kaviraj Kunja Lal (under British patronage), revealing advanced medical knowledge.
- Trade Networks: Robert Sewell documented hoards of Roman gold and silver coins in South India (e.g., Coimbatore, Madurai). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (translated by Wilfred Schoff, 1912) described Indian ports like Muziris, Barygaza, and Arikamedu, confirmed by ASI excavations.
- Irrigation and Technology: Inscriptions like the Girnar Rock Edict (Sudarshana Lake, repaired under Rudradaman, 2nd century CE) and the Grand Anicut (Kaveri River, Chola period) were studied, showing advanced hydraulic engineering.
- Evidence: Lothal’s dockyard (Harappan, 2400 BCE), Arikamedu’s Roman pottery (1st century CE), and Delhi Iron Pillar (4th century CE, rust-resistant metallurgy) confirmed India’s technological prowess.
References:
- Colebrooke, H.T. (1817). Algebra, with Arithmetic and Mensuration, from the Sanscrit of Brahmagupta and Bhascara, John Murray.
- Sewell, R. (1884). Lists of Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency of Madras, ASI.
- Schoff, W.H. (1912). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Longmans.
9. Harshavardhana Era: A Partially Forgotten Golden Age
What Was Lost:
- The Harshavardhana era (606–647 CE), under King Harsha of Kannauj, was a significant period of political unification, cultural flourishing, and Buddhist patronage in northern India. However, by the 18th century, its precise chronology, extent, and achievements were only vaguely known to pandits:
- Literary Sources: Harsha was known through Banabhatta’s Harshacharita (7th century CE, a Sanskrit biography) and Xuanzang’s Si-Yu-Ki (Chinese pilgrim’s travelogue, 7th century CE), but these texts were not widely circulated among pandits. The Harshacharita was preserved in select Jain and courtly libraries, while Xuanzang’s accounts were in Chinese, inaccessible to Indian scholars.
- Lack of Chronology: Pandits had no clear timeline for Harsha, often conflating him with later rulers or myths. Puranas and regional chronicles (e.g., Rajatarangini) mentioned “Harsha” but lacked specifics.
- Archaeological Ignorance: Harsha’s capital, Kannauj, and associated sites (e.g., Thaneshwar, Sthanesvara) were not linked to him. Inscriptions and coins were undeciphered or unrecognized.
- Buddhist Context: Harsha’s patronage of Buddhism and Nalanda was forgotten, as Buddhism had declined. Pandits, rooted in Brahmanical traditions, had little interest in or knowledge of his Buddhist contributions.
British Contribution:
- Literary Rediscovery: H.T. Colebrooke and Charles Wilkins (Asiatic Society) studied Sanskrit manuscripts, bringing Harshacharita to scholarly attention. Alexander Cunningham and Vincent Smith used Banabhatta’s text and Xuanzang’s accounts to reconstruct Harsha’s reign.
- Epigraphic Evidence: J.F. Fleet and E. Hultzsch deciphered inscriptions like the Banskhera copper plate (628 CE) and Madhuban copper plate (631 CE), which mention Harsha’s titles (Maharajadhiraja), conquests, and donations. The Aihole inscription (634 CE, of Chalukya king Pulakeshin II) references Harsha’s defeat at the Narmada River, providing a southern perspective.
- Archaeological Sites: Cunningham identified Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh) as Harsha’s capital and excavated Sthanesvara (Thaneshwar, Haryana), Harsha’s ancestral seat. ASI surveys confirmed Nalanda’s prominence under Harsha, with Xuanzang’s descriptions of its 10,000 students corroborated by finds like monastic seals.
- Numismatic Evidence: Harsha’s silver coins, though rare, were cataloged by E.J. Rapson, showing his economic influence.
- Evidence:
- Harshacharita: Details Harsha’s rise from Thaneshwar, conquests (e.g., Magadha, Bengal), and patronage of arts.
- Xuanzang’s Si-Yu-Ki: Describes Harsha’s Buddhist assemblies at Kannauj and Prayag, his donation of 100 villages to Nalanda, and his ecumenical support for Hinduism and Jainism.
- Banskhera Inscription: Confirms Harsha’s reign and titles, dated 628 CE.
- Archaeological Finds: Kannauj’s ruins (e.g., Rajgir fort) and Nalanda’s expanded monasteries align with Harsha’s era.
- Was It Lost to Pandits?:
- Partially Lost: Unlike Ashoka or the Indus Valley, Harsha was not entirely forgotten. His name appeared in Sanskrit texts (Harshacharita) and later chronicles (Rajatarangini), but pandits lacked a clear historical framework. They knew Harsha as a legendary king but not his exact dates (606–647 CE), conquests, or Buddhist patronage.
- Brahmanical Bias: As Brahmanical traditions dominated by the 18th century, Harsha’s Buddhist and ecumenical policies were downplayed. Pandits could not read his inscriptions (in late Brahmi-derived scripts) or connect archaeological sites to his reign.
- British Role: Colonial scholars provided a precise chronology, linked Harsha to Nalanda and Kannauj, and highlighted his Buddhist contributions, which were obscure to pandits.
References:
- Fleet, J.F. (1888). Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. 3, ASI.
- Smith, V.A. (1906). The Early History of India, Oxford University Press.
- Beal, S. (1884). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang, Trübner.
- Devahuti, D. (1970). Harsha: A Political Study, Oxford University Press.
Key Figures and Institutions
- James Prinsep (1799–1840): Deciphered Brahmi and Kharoshthi, unlocking Ashokan and later inscriptions.
- Alexander Cunningham (1814–1893): Founded ASI (1861); excavated Sanchi, Taxila, Kannauj, and identified Pataliputra.
- John Marshall (1876–1958): Led Indus Valley excavations; professionalized Indian archaeology.
- E. Hultzsch (1857–1927): First Government Epigraphist; published South Indian Inscriptions.
- James Fergusson (1808–1886) and James Burgess (1832–1916): Documented rock-cut caves and stupas.
- H.T. Colebrooke (1765–1837) and Charles Wilkins (1749–1836): Translated Sanskrit texts, including Harshacharita.
- Asiatic Society of Bengal (est. 1784): Platform for epigraphy, translations, and historical synthesis.
- Archaeological Survey of India (est. 1861): Centralized excavations, epigraphy, and conservation.
Indian Contributors (Under Colonial Patronage):
- Bhau Daji Lad (1822–1874): Studied Elephanta and other caves; contributed to numismatics.
- Rajendra Lal Mitra (1822–1891): Published on Buddhist archaeology and Sanskrit texts.
- Bhagwan Lal Indraji (1839–1888): Deciphered inscriptions and studied coins, including Gupta and post-Gupta periods.
- U.V. Swaminatha Iyer (1855–1942): Compiled Tamil Sangam texts, preserving South Indian heritage.
Critical Reflection: Colonial Narratives and Modern Perspectives
The British contributions were monumental, reconstructing ~80–90% of ancient Indian history taught today. However, their work was often framed within a colonial narrative of “rescuing” a “lost” Indian past. Historians like Vincent Smith (The Early History of India, 1906) argued that Indians had forgotten their history, ignoring the rich oral, textual, and regional traditions preserved by pandits, Jain monks, and Tamil scholars. This Eurocentric bias undervalued Indian agency, though scholars like Bhau Daji, Rajendra Lal Mitra, and U.V. Swaminatha Iyer collaborated with British teams, showing a shared endeavor.
Recent studies critique the colonial legacy:
- Ashish Avikunthak (Bureaucratic Archaeology, 2022) argues that the ASI, rooted in colonial structures, prioritized monumental sites (e.g., Sanchi, Nalanda) over local narratives and faces bureaucratic challenges today.
- Upinder Singh (The Idea of Ancient India, 2016) emphasizes that post-independence Indian scholars have expanded the field with interdisciplinary approaches, including bioarchaeology (e.g., Rakhigarhi DNA studies), numismatics, and subaltern perspectives.
- Nayanjot Lahiri (Finding Forgotten Cities, 2005) highlights how colonial archaeology, while groundbreaking, was shaped by imperial priorities, often neglecting non-elite sites.
The Harshavardhana era, while not as completely lost as Ashoka’s or the Indus Valley, exemplifies partial amnesia. Its rediscovery required colonial scholars to integrate Sanskrit texts, Chinese accounts, and inscriptions, which pandits could not fully contextualize due to script obsolescence and the decline of Buddhist historical traditions.
Conclusion: From Myth to History
The journey from “Bhima’s Pillars” to Ashoka’s edicts symbolizes the rediscovery of India’s ancient past during the colonial era. British scholars, through excavations, script decipherment, and numismatic studies, revealed a history erased from Indian memory: Ashoka’s Mauryan Empire, the urban sophistication of the Indus Valley, the global reach of Buddhist universities, the literary richness of the Tamil Sangam age, and the cultural zenith of Harshavardhana’s reign. Their work, documented in ASI reports, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and museum collections, remains foundational, despite colonial biases. Indian scholars under colonial patronage and post-independence researchers have built on this legacy, with ongoing excavations (e.g., Keezhadi, Rakhigarhi) and global studies ensuring that India’s lost history continues to be reclaimed and reinterpreted.
Sources and References:
- Prinsep, J. (1837). Interpretation of the Most Ancient of the Inscriptions on the Pillars Called Lāts, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 6, pp. 566–609.
- Marshall, J. (1931). Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, 3 Vols., Arthur Probsthain.
- Cunningham, A. (1877). Inscriptions of Asoka, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. 1, ASI.
- Hultzsch, E. (1890). South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 1, ASI.
- Shinde, V. (2020). Rakhigarhi Excavations, Deccan College Research Reports.
- Narasingham, V.M., et al. (2019). The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia, Cell, Vol. 178, pp. 987–1001.
- Fergusson, J. (1868). Tree and Serpent Worship, ASI Reports.
- Caldwell, R. (1856). A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages, Harrison.
- Fleet, J.F. (1888). Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. 3, ASI.
- Beal, S. (1884). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang, Trübner.
- Devahuti, D. (1970). Harsha: A Political Study, Oxford University Press.
- Avikunthak, A. (2022). Bureaucratic Archaeology: State, Science, and Past in Postcolonial India, Cambridge University Press.
- Singh, U. (2016). The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on History, Archaeology, and Culture, Sage Publications.
- Lahiri, N. (2005). Finding Forgotten Cities: How the Indus Civilization Was Discovered, Permanent Black.
- Rapson, E.J. (1908). Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, Western Ksatrapas, etc., British Museum.
