Introduction: The Historical Context of Chinese Pilgrimages to India
The era spanning the 4th to 7th centuries CE witnessed a remarkable exchange between China and India, facilitated by the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Roads and maritime routes. This period, often romanticized as a golden age of cultural and religious interaction, saw hundreds of Chinese monks undertake arduous journeys to the birthplace of Buddhism. Among them, three stand out for their detailed travelogues and scholarly contributions: Faxian (c. 337–422 CE), Xuanzang (602–664 CE), and Yijing (635–713 CE). These pilgrims, driven by a quest for authentic Buddhist doctrines, traversed deserts, mountains, and seas, documenting not only religious sites but also the socio-political, cultural, and economic landscapes of ancient India.
Table of Contents
Faxian’s pilgrimage occurred during the height of the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE), a time of artistic and intellectual flourishing under rulers like Chandragupta II (r. 375–415 CE). Xuanzang’s travels coincided with the reign of Harshavardhana (r. 606–647 CE) of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, who unified much of northern India and patronized Buddhism alongside other faiths. Yijing’s journey unfolded in the late 7th century, as Buddhism began to wane in parts of India amid the rise of devotional Hinduism ( Hinduism not in existence at that time ,it was group of Shavities and Vaishnav) and regional kingdoms like the Pala Empire in Bengal.
Their primary motivations were spiritual and academic: to acquire original Buddhist scriptures, often in Sanskrit or its variants like Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (BHS), to resolve textual discrepancies in Chinese translations, and to immerse themselves in monastic life at centers like Nalanda. BHS, a linguistic hybrid emerging from the sanskritization of Prakrit dialects (with influences from Pali), was commonly used in Mahayana texts during this period. This language evolved as Buddhist scribes adapted vernacular Prakrit forms to more prestigious Sanskrit structures, reflecting the dynamic evolution of Buddhist literature from oral traditions inscribed in scripts like Brahmi. Brahmi, an ancient script from the 3rd century BCE, served as the foundation for writing these languages, but it was not a language itself.
These accounts, preserved in works like Faxian’s Foguoji (A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms), Xuanzang’s Datang Xiyuji (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions), and Yijing’s Nanhai Jigui Neifa Zhuan (A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea), offer unparalleled insights into ancient India. They describe a society marked by religious pluralism, advanced scholarship, and social hierarchies, including the caste system. Importantly, these pilgrims referred to places by their contemporary names; for instance, the city now known as Ayodhya was called Saketa in Buddhist contexts during their visits, reflecting its identification in ancient texts as Saketa, the capital of Kosala, rather than the later Hindu-centric Ayodhya. This distinction highlights how place names evolved, with Saketa being the prevalent term in 5th–7th century Buddhist narratives, while Ayodhya gained prominence in later Ramayana traditions.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, these records became instrumental for British colonial scholars and archaeologists, enabling the rediscovery of lost sites and the reconstruction of India’s ancient history. Translations by figures like James Legge (1886 for Faxian), Samuel Beal (1884 for Xuanzang), and Junjirō Takakusu (1896 for Yijing) provided geographical clues that guided excavations. This article delves into their purposes, routes, visited sites, writings, observations on culture, religion, dharma, and society (including castes), the manuscripts they transported, and their profound impact on modern historiography. Drawing from authentic sources, including the aforementioned translations, Thomas Watters’ commentary on Xuanzang (1904–1905), and recent scholarly analyses like Tansen Sen’s Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade (2003), we rectify historical nuances, such as the Saketa-Ayodhya equivalence and the linguistic specificity of BHS.
Faxian: The Trailblazing Monk and His Quest for Vinaya Texts (399–412 CE)
Motivations Behind the Pilgrimage
Faxian, originally named Gong Sehi from Pingyang in Shanxi province, ordained as a monk at a young age after personal tragedies, including the loss of siblings. By the late 4th century, Chinese Buddhism faced challenges due to incomplete or inaccurate translations of key texts, particularly the Vinaya Pitaka, which governs monastic discipline. Faxian’s journey was spurred by a desire to obtain pristine versions of these texts from India, where Buddhism originated. He sought to visit sacred sites associated with the Buddha’s life, death, and teachings, aiming to authenticate Chinese practices and enrich the nascent Buddhist community under the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420 CE).
His pilgrimage symbolized the growing Sinicization of Buddhism, blending Confucian ethics with Indian doctrines. Unlike later pilgrims, Faxian’s focus was predominantly on Hinayana (Theravada) traditions, though he encountered Mahayana elements.
The Arduous Route and Modes of Travel
Faxian’s expedition began in 399 CE from Chang’an (modern Xi’an), the Jin capital. Opting for the southern branch of the Silk Road to avoid northern conflicts, he traversed the Gobi Desert, stopping at oases like Dunhuang for provisions. From there, he crossed into Central Asia, visiting kingdoms such as Shanshan, Khotan (a Mahayana hub), and Udyana, enduring harsh terrains, bandit threats, and extreme weather.
Entering India via the Karakoram Pass, he reached Gandhara (modern Pakistan), then proceeded to Taxila and Peshawar. In northern India, he followed the Yamuna and Ganges rivers eastward, covering vast distances on foot, occasionally using ox-carts or elephants provided by local patrons.
After nearly a decade in India, Faxian departed from Tamralipti (modern Tamluk, Bengal) by sea, sailing to Sri Lanka (Ceylon) for two years to collect more texts. His return voyage via Java (Indonesia) was perilous; storms nearly sank his ship twice, but he reached Shandong, China, in 412 CE. The total journey spanned over 13 years, combining overland trekking (approximately 10,000 miles) with maritime travel.
Sites Visited and Their Significance
Faxian documented visits to over 30 “countries” (kingdoms or regions), with a focus on Buddhist landmarks. In Central Asia: Dunhuang, Khotan (famous for its jade and monasteries), and Kashgar.
In India: Purushapura (Peshawar), where he saw Kanishka’s stupa; Taxila, a center of learning; Mathura, with its thriving monasteries; Kannauj; Sravasti (Jetavana, where Buddha preached); Saketa (modern Ayodhya, identified as the ancient Kosala capital, not yet prominently called Ayodhya in Buddhist texts); Kapilavastu (Buddha’s birthplace); Lumbini; Kushinagar (site of Buddha’s parinirvana); Bodh Gaya (Mahabodhi Temple); Varanasi (Sarnath); Vaishali; Pataliputra (Patna, Gupta capital, where he studied for three years); and Tamralipti.
He spent extended periods at Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya, witnessing festivals and relic veneration. These sites, many now UNESCO heritage, were bustling with pilgrims and monks.
Key Writings and Observations
Faxian’s A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (translated by James Legge, 1886), a concise 40-chapter narrative, emphasizes factual descriptions over personal anecdotes. It serves as the earliest detailed Chinese account of Indian Buddhism.
On Religion and Dharma: Faxian highlighted the predominance of Hinayana Buddhism in northern India, with strict adherence to Vinaya rules. Monasteries housed thousands of monks practicing meditation, chanting, and alms rounds. He described elaborate processions, such as the annual Buddha image parade in Pataliputra, and relics like the Buddha’s tooth in Sri Lanka. Dharma was portrayed as a living ethic: non-violence, charity, and monastic purity were upheld, with kings like Chandragupta II supporting viharas (monasteries).
On Culture and Society: Gupta India appeared prosperous and orderly. Agriculture thrived with irrigation; cities were clean and fortified. People were hospitable, vegetarian (no animal slaughter), and charitable, with free hospitals and rest houses. Taxation was minimal, justice merciful (no death penalty except for treason), and mobility unrestricted. Art and architecture flourished, evident in stupas and rock-cut caves.
On Castes and Social Structure: Faxian noted the rigid varna system: Brahmins as scholars/priests, Kshatriyas as rulers, Vaishyas as merchants, Shudras as laborers. He described “Chandalas” (outcastes) as segregated, required to strike a wood piece when approaching others to avoid ritual pollution. Despite this, society was tolerant, with Buddhists transcending caste in monasteries. This observation underscores the coexistence of Vedic hierarchies with Buddhist egalitarianism.
Manuscripts Copied and Brought to China
Faxian procured numerous texts, primarily Vinaya collections from the Mahasanghika, Sarvastivada, and Mahishasaka schools, along with Mahayana sutras like the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. These were in Sanskrit or early forms of BHS, copied meticulously at monasteries. Estimates suggest he brought back over 20 major works, though exact counts vary due to losses at sea. Upon return, he translated several, including the Mahasanghika Vinaya, influencing Chinese monastic reforms.
Faxian’s legacy lies in bridging cultural gaps; his accounts inspired later pilgrims like Xuanzang.
Xuanzang: The Master Translator and His Epic Odyssey (629–645 CE)
Purpose of the Epic Journey
Xuanzang, born Chen Yi in Henan, was orphaned young and ordained at 13. Frustrated by inconsistencies in Chinese Buddhist translations—stemming from linguistic barriers and incomplete sources—he resolved to study originals in India. His focus was Yogacara philosophy (Vijnanavada), emphasizing consciousness, and resolving debates between sects. Defying Tang Emperor Taizong’s travel ban, he departed secretly, seeking patronage from Indian kings like Harshavardhana.
This 16-year quest exemplified scholarly devotion, aiming to import not just texts but intellectual traditions.
Route, Travel Methods, and Challenges
Starting from Chang’an in 629 CE, Xuanzang followed the northern Silk Road: through Gansu, Turfan (Gaochang kingdom, where he received royal escort), Kucha, Aksu, Tashkent, Samarkand (Sogdia), and Balkh (Bactria). Crossing the Hindu Kush via Bamiyan (noting giant Buddha statues), he entered Kapisi (Afghanistan), then Gandhara, Taxila, and Srinagar (Kashmir, studying for two years).
In India, his path was circuitous: Punjab, Mathura, Kannauj (Harsha’s court), Prayag (Allahabad, attending Kumbh Mela), Saketa (modern Ayodhya, described as Saketa in his records, a prosperous city with Buddhist and Hindu sites); Sravasti; Kapilavastu; Lumbini; Kushinagar; Sarnath; Bodh Gaya; Nalanda (five years under Silabhadra); Vaishali; Pataliputra; southward to Amaravati, Kanchipuram (Pallava kingdom); westward to Nasik, Ajanta caves, Malwa, and Gujarat.
Returning in 645 CE via the Pamirs, he was escorted by allies, arriving triumphantly in Chang’an with imperial honors.
Travel involved horseback, elephants, boats, and foot marches, enduring robbers, deserts, and rivers. He learned Sanskrit en route.
Extensive Places Visited
Xuanzang chronicled over 138 kingdoms. Highlights: Nalanda (10,000 monks); Kannauj (religious assembly); Prayag; Saketa (noted for its ruins and monasteries, confirming its identity as ancient Kosala’s capital, distinct from later Ayodhya nomenclature); Bodh Gaya; Sarnath; Taxila; Bamiyan; Ajanta (cave paintings); Kanchipuram (southern learning center).
These visits provided a panoramic view of India’s diversity.
Writings: A Monumental Chronicle
Great Tang Records on the Western Regions (646 CE, 12 volumes), assisted by Bianji, is a encyclopedic work (translated by Beal, 1884; commented by Watters, 1904–1905). It blends geography, history, ethnography, and folklore.
On Religion and Dharma: Xuanzang depicted a pluralistic landscape: Mahayana dominant at Nalanda, Hinayana in Gandhara, Hinduism and Jainism coexisting. He detailed Harsha’s ecumenical policies, assemblies debating dharma, and relics. Buddhism was declining in the west but vibrant eastward. Dharma emphasized compassion, scholarship, and rituals like circumambulation.
On Culture and Society: India was advanced: precise calendars, medicine, mathematics. People were truthful, artistic; women educated. Economy thrived on trade, agriculture.
On Castes: Detailed varna: Brahmins (learned, vegetarian); Kshatriyas (warriors); Vaishyas (traders); Shudras (servants). Untouchables faced discrimination; endogamy strict. Monasteries offered merit-based equality, critiquing caste rigidity.
Manuscripts and Their Transformative Impact
Xuanzang transported 657 texts (on 520 bundles), including Yogacara treatises in BHS/Sanskrit, 150 relics, and statues. He translated 75 works, founding the Faxiang school, profoundly shaping East Asian Buddhism.
Yijing: The Maritime Pilgrim and Chronicler of Monastic Life (671–695 CE)
Driving Forces of the Voyage
Yijing, from Shandong, ordained young and studied Vinaya. Concerned with lax Chinese monastic practices, he sought accurate Indian models. His journey emphasized discipline over doctrine, complementing predecessors.
Sea Route and Travel Experiences
Departing Guangzhou in 671 CE on a Persian ship, Yijing sailed the Maritime Silk Road to Srivijaya (Sumatra), studying there for six months. Then to Malayu, Kedah, and Tamralipti. He spent a decade at Nalanda, visiting Bengal sites.
Returning via Srivijaya (translating texts), he reached China in 695 CE. Sea travel involved monsoons, pirates; he documented navigation.
Places Explored
Focus: Srivijaya (Buddhist kingdom); Tamralipti; Nalanda; Bodh Gaya; minor sites in Sumatra, Java.
Scholarly Writings and Insights
A Record of Buddhist Practices (translated Takakusu, 1896) details Vinaya; Memoirs of Eminent Monks profiles pilgrims.
On Religion and Dharma: Emphasized monastic routines: alms, hygiene, debates. Mahayana/Hinayana blended; dharma as ethical code.
On Culture and Society: Admired Indian scholarship, tolerance; Srivijaya’s prosperity.
On Castes: Noted hierarchies but monastic transcendence.
Texts Acquired
Around 400 volumes, mostly Vinaya in BHS/Sanskrit; translated 56, standardizing Chinese practices.
The Pilgrims’ Accounts and Their Role in British Colonial Scholarship and Archaeology
The 19th century saw a revival of interest in ancient India through Orientalist scholarship. British administrators like James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi scripts, aided by these Chinese records.
Alexander Cunningham, ASI founder (1861), used Xuanzang’s descriptions to locate Saketa (Ayodhya), Sarnath, Kushinagar, and Nalanda. Faxian’s notes guided Bodh Gaya excavations; Yijing’s on southern routes informed Pallava sites.
These texts filled gaps in Puranic histories, revealing Gupta prosperity and Buddhist decline. References: Legge (1886), Beal (1884), Watters (1904–1905), Cunningham’s Ancient Geography of India (1871).
They enabled chronological reconstructions, influencing historians like Vincent Smith (Early History of India, 1904)
Comparative Analysis: Inconsistencies Rectified and Broader Insights
Comparing the three: Faxian focused on Hinayana, Xuanzang on Mahayana philosophy, Yijing on praxis. Place names like Saketa (not Ayodhya) are consistent in their texts, reflecting Buddhist nomenclature. Linguistic notes: Texts in BHS, a Prakrit-Sanskrit hybrid, not pure Sanskrit; Brahmi as script.
Cultural observations show evolving society: From Gupta harmony to Harsha’s syncretism.
Conclusion: Enduring Legacy and Modern Relevance
These pilgrims’ endeavors preserved India’s ancient heritage, influencing global Buddhism and historiography. Their rectified accounts continue to inform archaeology and cultural studies.
References: Full list including Wikipedia entries for overviews, ResearchGate for linguistics, and primary translations.
References, Sources, and Evidences
Primary Sources (Translations)
- Faxian. A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. Trans. James Legge. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886. Available: https://archive.org/details/arecordbuddhist00legggoog
- Xuanzang. Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World. Trans. Samuel Beal. 2 vols. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1884/1906. Vol. 1: https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistr01bealgoog
- Thomas Watters. On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India (commentary). 2 vols. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1904–1905.
- Yijing. A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago. Trans. Junjirō Takakusu. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1896. Available: https://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00ichi
Secondary and Scholarly Sources
- Tansen Sen. “The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing.” Education About Asia 11, no. 3 (2006): 24–33.
- Alexander Cunningham. The Ancient Geography of India: The Buddhist Period. London: Trübner & Co., 1871.
- Sally Hovey Wriggins. Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.
- Max Deeg. Various works on pilgrims’ texts.
On Manuscripts and Numbers
- Xuanzang: 657 texts (consistent in biographies/translations).
- Faxian/Yijing: Estimates vary; several dozen/400 volumes from translations/introductions.
On Saketa/Ayodhya and Linguistics
From primary texts and scholarly consensus: Saketa in pilgrims’ eras; BHS in Mahayana manuscripts.
